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Sketches of Jewish Social Life
Chapter 13 - Among the People, and with the Pharisees
It would have been difficult to proceed far either in Galilee or in Judaea
without coming into contact with an altogether peculiar and striking
individuality, differing from all around, and which would at once arrest attention. This was
the Pharisee. Courted or feared, shunned or flattered, reverently looked up to
or laughed at, he was equally a power everywhere, both ecclesiastically and
politically, as belonging to the most influential, the most zealous, and the most
closely-connected religions fraternity, which in the pursuit of its objects
spared neither time nor trouble, feared no danger, and shrunk from no
consequences. Familiar as the name sounds to readers of the New Testament and students of
Jewish history, there is no subject on which more crude or inaccurate notions
prevail than that of Pharisaism, nor yet any which, rightly understood, gives
fuller insight into the state of Judaism at the time of our Lord, or better
illustrates His words and His deeds. Let us first view the Pharisee as, himself
seemingly unmoved, he moves about among the crowd, which either respectfully gives
way or curiously looks after him.
There was probably no town or village inhabited by Jews which had not its
Pharisees, although they would, of course, gather in preference about Jerusalem
with its Temple, and what, perhaps would have been even dearer to the heart of a
genuine Pharisee--its four hundred and eighty synagogues, its Sanhedrims (great
and small), and its schools of study. There could be no difficulty in
recognising such an one. Walking behind him, the chances were, he would soon halt to say
his prescribed prayers. If the fixed time for them had come, he would stop
short in the middle of the road, perhaps say one section of them, move on, again
say another part, and so on, till, whatever else might be doubted, there could
be no question of the conspicuousness of his devotions in market-place or
corners of streets. There he would stand, as taught by the traditional law, would
draw his feet well together, compose his body and clothes, and bend so low "that
every vertebra in his back would stand out separate," or, at least, till "the
skin over his heart would fall into folds" (Ber. 28 b). The workman would drop
his tools, the burden-bearer his load; if a man had already one foot in the
stirrup, he would withdraw it. The hour had come, and nothing could be suffered to
interrupt or disturb him. The very salutation of a king, it was said, must
remain unreturned; nay, the twisting of a serpent around one's heel must remain
unheeded. Nor was it merely the prescribed daily seasons of prayer which so claimed
his devotions. On entering a village, and again on leaving it, he must say one
or two benedictions; the same in passing through a fortress, in encountering
any danger, in meeting with anything new, strange, beautiful, or unexpected. And
the longer he prayed the better. In the view of the Rabbis this had a twofold
advantage; for "much prayer is sure to be heard," and "prolix prayer prolongeth
life." At the same time, as each prayer expressed, and closed with a
benediction of the Divine Name, there would be special religious merit attaching to mere
number, and a hundred "benedictions" said in one day was a kind of measure of
great piety.
But on meeting a Pharisee face to face his identity could still less be
doubted. His self-satisfied, or else mock-modest or ostentatiously meek bearing would
betray him, even irrespective of his superciliousness towards others, his
avoidance of every touch of persons or things which he held unclean, and his
extravagant religious displays. We are, of course, speaking of the class, or, rather,
the party, as such, and of its tendencies, and not of all the individuals who
composed it. Besides, there were, as we shall by-and-by see, various degrees
among them, from the humblest Pharisee, who was simply a member of the
fraternity, only initiated in its lowest degree, or perhaps even a novice, to the most
advanced chasid, or "pietist." The latter would, for example, bring every day a
trespass-offering, in case he had committed some offence of which he was
doubtful. How far the punctiliousness of that class, in observing the laws of
Levitical purity, would go, may be gathered from a Rabbi, who would not allow his son
to remain in the room while he was in the hands of the surgeon, lest he might be
defiled by contact with the amputated limb, which, of course, was thenceforth
dead. Another chasid went so far in his zeal for Sabbath observance, that he
would not build up again his house because he had thought about it on the
Sabbath; and it was even declared by some improper to intrust a letter to a Gentile,
lest he should deliver it on the holy day! These are real, but by no means
extreme cases. For, a Rabbi, contemporary with the apostles, was actually obliged to
denounce, as incompatible with the continuance of society, the vagaries of the
so-called "Chasid Shoteh," or silly pietist. What was meant by these will
appear from such instances as the refusal to save a woman from drowning for fear of
touching a female, or waiting to put off the phylacteries before stretching
out a hand to rescue a child from the water!
Readers of the New Testament will remember that the very dress of the
Pharisees differed from that of others. Simple as the garb of Orientals is, it must not
be thought that, in those days, wealth, rank, and luxury were not recognisable
quite as much, if not more, than among ourselves. No doubt the polished
Grecian, the courtly Herodian, the wealthy Sadducee, as well as many of the lady
patronesses of the Pharisees (Josephus, Ant. xvii,32-45), would have been easily
recognised. At any rate, Jewish writings give us such descriptions of their
toilette, that we can almost transport ourselves among the fashionable society of
Tiberias, Caesarea, Jerusalem, or that of "the dispersed," who were residents of
Alexandria or of the wealthy towns of Babylonia.
Altogether, it seems, eighteen garments were supposed to complete an elegant
toilette. The material, the colour, and the cut distinguished the wearer. While
the poor used the upper garment for a covering at night, the fashionable wore
the finest white, embroidered, or even purple garments, with curiously-wrought
silk girdles. It was around this upper garment that "the borders" were worn
which the Pharisees "enlarged" (Matt23:5). Of these we shall speak presently.
Meantime we continue our description. The inner garment went down to the heels. The
head-dress consisted of a pointed cap, or kind of turban, of more or less
exquisite material, and curiously wound, the ends often hanging gracefully behind.
Gloves were generally used only for protection. As for ladies, besides
differences in dress, the early charge of Isaiah (3:16-24) against the daughters of
Jerusalem might have been repeated with tenfold emphasis in New Testament times. We
read of three kinds of veils. The Arabian hung down from the head, leaving the
wearer free to see all around; the veil-dress was a kind of mantilla, thrown
gracefully about the whole person, and covering the head; while the Egyptian
resembled the veil of modern Orientals, covering breast, neck, chin, and face, and
leaving only the eyes free. The girdle, which was fastened lower than by men,
was often of very costly fabric, and studded with precious stones. Sandals
consisted merely of soles strapped to the feet; but ladies wore also costly
slippers, sometimes embroidered, or adorned with gems, and so arranged that the
pressure of the foot emitted a delicate perfume. It is well known that scents and
"ointments" were greatly in vogue, and often most expensive (Matt26:7). The latter
were prepared of oil and of home or foreign perfumes, the dearest being kept
in costly alabaster boxes. The trade of perfumer was, however, looked down upon,
not only among the Jews, but even among heathen nations. But in general
society anointing was combined with washing, as tending to comfort and refreshment.
The hair, the beard, the forehead, and the face, even garlands worn at feasts,
were anointed. But luxury went much farther than all this. Some ladies used
cosmetics, painting their cheeks and blackening their eyebrows with a mixture of
antimony, zinc, and oil. The hair, which was considered a chief point of beauty,
was the object of special care. Young people wore it long; but in men this
would have been regarded as a token of effeminacy (1Cor11:14). The beard was
carefully trimmed, anointed, and perfumed. Slaves were not allowed to wear beards.
Peasant girls tied their hair in a simple knot; but the fashionable Jewesses
curled and plaited theirs, adorning the tresses with gold ornaments and pearls. The
favourite colour was a kind of auburn, to produce which the hair was either
dyed or sprinkled with gold-dust. We read even of false hair (Shab. vi. 3), just
as false teeth also were worn in Judaea. Indeed, as in this respect also there
is nothing new under the sun, we are not astonished to find mention of
hair-pins and elegant combs, nor to read that some Jewish dandies had their hair
regularly dressed! However, the business of hairdresser was not regarded as very
respectable, any more than that of perfumer. *
- The learned Lightfoot has expressed a doubt whether the name "Magdalene" is to
be rendered "from Magdala" or "the hairdresser." We have noted in a previous
chapter, that the inhabitants of Magdala engaged in such and similar business.
But the Rabbinical passages to which Lightfoot refers are not satisfactory,
since they are evidently dictated by a special animus against Christ and
Christianity.
As for ornaments, gentlemen generally wore a seal, either on the ring-finger
or suspended round the neck. Some of them had also bracelets above the wrist
(commonly of the right arm), made of ivory, gold, or precious stones strung
together. Of course, the fashionable lady was similarly adorned, adding to the
bracelets finger-rings, ankle-rings, nose-rings, ear-rings, gorgeous head-dresses,
necklaces, chains, and what are nowadays called "charms." As it may interest
some, we shall add a few sentences of description. The ear-ring was either plain,
or had a drop, a pendant, or a little bell inserted. The nose-ring, which the
traditional law ordered to be put aside on the Sabbath, hung gracefully over the
upper lip, yet so as not to interfere with the salute of the privileged friend.
Two kinds of necklaces were worn--one close-fitting, the other often
consisting of precious stones or pearls, and hanging down over the chest, often as low
as the girdle. The fashionable lady would wear two or three such chains, to
which smelling-bottles and various ornaments, even heathen "charms," were attached.
Gold pendants descended from the head-ornament, which sometimes rose like a
tower, or was wreathed in graceful snake-like coils. The anklets were generally
so wrought as in walking to make a sound like little bells. Sometimes the two
ankle-rings were fastened together, which would oblige the fair wearer to walk
with small, mincing steps. If to all this we add gold and diamond pins, and say
that our very brief description is strictly based upon contemporary notices, the
reader will have some idea of the appearance of fashionable society.
The sketch just given will be of some practical use if it helps us more fully
to realise the contrast presented by the appearance of the Pharisee. Whether
sternly severe, blandly meek, or zealously earnest, he would carefully avoid all
contact with one who was not of the fraternity, or even occupied an inferior
degree in it, as we shall by-and-by show. He would also be recognisable by his
very garb. For, in the language of our Lord, the Pharisees made "broad their
phylacteries," and "enlarged the borders of their garments." The latter observance,
at least so far as concerned the wearing of memorial fringes on the borders of
the garments--not the conspicuous enlargement of these borders--rested really
on a Divine ordinance (Num15:37; Deu22:12). In Scripture these fringes are
prescribed to be of blue, the symbolical colour of the covenant; but the Mishnah
allows them also to be white (Men. iv. 1). They are not unfrequently referred to
in the New Testament (Matt9:20,14:36,23:5; Mark6:56; Luke8:44). As already
stated, they were worn on the border of the outer garment--no doubt by every pious
Israelite. Later Jewish mysticism found in this fringed border deep references
to the manner in which the Shechinah enwrapped itself in creation, and called
the attention of each Israelite to the fact that, if in Numbers15:39 we read (in
the Hebrew), "Ye shall look upon him" [not "it," as in our Authorised Version]
"and remember," this change of gender (for the Hebrew word for "fringes" is
feminine) indicated--"that, if thou doest so, it is as much as if thou sawest the
throne of the Glory, which is like unto blue." And thus believing, the pious
Jew would cover in prayer his head with this mysterious fringed garment; in
marked contrast to which St. Paul declares all such superstitious practices as
dishonouring (1Cor11:4). *
- The practice of modern Jews is somewhat different from that of ancient times.
Without entering into details, it is sufficient here to say that they wear
underneath their garments a small square, with fringes, called the little tallith
(from "talal," to overshadow or cover), or the "arbah canphoth" (four
"corners"); while during prayer they wrap themselves in the great tallith, or so-called
prayer-cloak.
If the practice of wearing borders with fringes had Scriptural authority, we
are well convinced that no such plea could be urged for the so-called
"phylacteries." The observance arose from a literal interpretation of Exodus13:9, to
which even the later injunction in Deuteronomy6:8 gives no countenance. This
appears even from its repetition in Deuteronomy11:18, where the spiritual meaning and
purport of the direction is immediately indicated, and from a comparison with
kindred expressions, which evidently could not be taken literally--such as
Proverbs3:3,6:21,7:3; Canticles8:6; Isaiah49:16. The very term used by the Rabbis
for phylacteries--"tephillin," prayer-fillets--is comparatively modern origin,
in so far as it does not occur in the Hebrew Old Testament. The Samaritans did
not acknowledge them as of Mosaic obligation, any more than do the Karaite Jews,
and there is, what seems to us, sufficient evidence, even from Rabbinical
writings, that in the time of Christ phylacteries were not universally worn, nor
yet by the priests while officiating in the Temple. Although the words of our
Lord seem only expressly to condemn the making broad of the phylacteries, for
purposes of religious ostentation, it is difficult to believe that He Himself had
worn them. At any rate, while any ordinary Israelite would only put them on at
prayer or on solemn occasions, the members of the Pharisaic confraternity wore
them all day long. The practice itself, and the views and ordinances connected
with it, are so characteristic of the party, that we shall add a few further
particulars.
The "tephillin" were worn on the left arm, towards the heart, and on the
forehead. They consisted--to describe them roughly--of capsules, containing, on
parchment (that for the forehead on four distinct parchments), these four passages
of Scripture: Exodus13:1-10,13:11-16; Deuteronomy6:4-9 and11:13-21. The
capsules were fastened on by black leather straps, which were wound round the arm and
hand (seven times round the former, and three times round the latter), or else
fitted to the forehead in a prescribed and mystically significant manner. The
wearer of them could not be mistaken. But as for their value and importance in
the eyes of the Rabbis, it were impossible to exaggerate it. They were
reverenced as highly as the Scriptures, and, like them, might be rescued from the flames
on a Sabbath, although not worn, as constituting "a burden!" It was said that
Moses had received the law of their observance from God on Mount Sinai; that
the "tephillin" were more sacred than the golden plate on the forehead of the
high-priest, since its inscription embodied only once the sacred name of Jehovah,
while the writing inside the "tephillin" contained it not less than
twenty-three times; that the command of wearing them equalled all other commands put
together, with many other similar extravagances. How far the profanity of the Rabbis
in this respect would go, appears from the circumstance, that they supposed
God Himself as wearing phylacteries (Ber. 6 a). The fact is deduced from
Isaiah62:8, where the "right hand" by which Jehovah swears is supposed to refer to the
law, according to the last clause of Deuteronomy33:2; while the expression
"strength of His arm" was applied to the "tephillin," since the term "strength"
appeared in Psalm29:11 in connection with God's people, and was in turn explained
by a reference to Deuteronomy28:10. For "the strength" of God's People
(Psa29:11) is that which would cause all to "be afraid" of Israel (Deu28:10); and this
latter would be due to their seeing that Israel was "called by the name of
Jehovah," this ocular demonstration being afforded through the "tephillin." Such
was the evidence which traditionalism offered for such a monstrous proposition.
The above may serve as a specimen alike of Rabbinical exegesis and theological
inferences. It will also help us to understand, how in such a system
inconvenient objections, arising from the plain meaning of Scripture, would be summarily
set aside by exalting the interpretations of men above the teaching of the
Bible. This brings us straight to the charge of our Lord against the Pharisees
(Mark7:13), that they made "the Word of God of none effect" through their
"traditions." The fact, terrible as it is, nowhere, perhaps, comes out more strongly
than in connection with these very "tephillin." We read in the Mishnah (Sanh. xi.
3), literally, as follows: "It is more punishable to act against the words of
the Scribes than against those of Scripture. If a man were to say, 'There is no
such thing as "tephillin,"' in order thereby to act contrary to the words of
Scripture, he is not to be treated as a rebel. But if he should say, 'There are
five divisions in the prayer-fillets' (instead of four in those for the
forehead, as the Rabbis taught), in order to add to the words of the Scribes, he is
guilty." Assuredly, a more signal instance could scarcely be found of "teaching
for doctrines the commandments of men," and of, even on their own showing,
"laying aside the commandment of God," in order to "hold the tradition of men"
(Mark7:7,8).
Before passing from this subject, it may be convenient to explain the meaning
of the Greek term "phylacteries" for these "tephillin," and to illustrate its
aptness. It is now almost generally admitted, that the real meaning of
phylacteries is equivalent to amulets or charms. And as such the Rabbinists really
regarded and treated them, however much they might otherwise have disclaimed all
connection with heathen views. In this connection we are not going to enter into
the unsavoury subject of their heathen superstitions, such as where to find, how
to detect, and by what means to get rid of evil spirits, or how to conjure up
demons--as these are indicated in the Talmud. Considering the state of
civilisation at the time, and the general prevalence of superstition, we should perhaps
have scarcely wondered at all this, had it not been for the claims which the
Rabbis set up to Divine authority, and the terrible contrast exhibited between
their teaching and that--we will not say of the New, but--of the Old Testament.
In reference to the "phylacteries," even the language of Josephus (Ant.
iv,212-213) savours of belief in their magical efficacy; although in this matter also
he is true to himself, showing us, at the same time, that certain proverbial
views of gratitude were already in vogue in his time. For, writing of the
phylacteries, which, he maintains, the Jews wore in remembrance of their past
deliverance, he observes, that this expression of their gratitude "served not only by
way of return for past, but also by way of invitation of future favours!" Many
instances of the magical ideas attaching to these "amulets" might be quoted; but
the following will suffice. It is said that, when a certain Rabbi left the
audience of some king, he had turned his back upon the monarch. Upon this, the
courtiers would have killed the Rabbi, but were deterred by seeing that the straps
of his "tephillin" shone like bands of fire about him; thus verifying the
promise in Deuteronomy28:10 (Jer. Ber. v. 1). Indeed, we have it expressly stated
in an ancient Jewish Targum (that on Cant8:3), that the "tephillin" prevented
all hostile demons from doing injury to any Israelite.
What has been said will in some measure prepare the reader for investigating
the history and influence of the Pharisees at the time of Christ. Let it be
borne in mind, that patriotism and religion equally combined to raise them in
popular esteem. What made Palestine a land separate and distinct from the heathen
nations around, among whom the ruling families would fain have merged them, was
that Jewish element which the Pharisees represented. Their very origin as a
party stretched back to the great national struggle which had freed the soil of
Palestine from Syrian domination. In turn, the Pharisees had deserted those
Maccabees whom formerly they had supported, and dared persecution and death, when the
descendants of the Maccabees declined into worldly pomp and Grecian ways, and
would combine the royal crown of David with the high-priest's mitre. And now,
whoever might fear Herod or his family, the Pharisees at least would not
compromise their principles. Again, were they not the representatives of the Divine
law--not only of that given to Israel on Mount Sinai, but also of those more
secret ordinances which were only verbally communicated to Moses, in explanation
of, and addition to the law? If they had made "a hedge" around the law, it was
only for the safety of Israel, and for their better separation from all that was
impure, as well as from the Gentiles. As for themselves, they were bound by
vows and obligations of the strictest kind. Their dealings with the world outside
their fraternity, their occupations, their practices, their bearing, their very
dress and appearance among that motley crowd--either careless, gay, and
Grecianising, or self-condemned by a practice in sad discord with their Jewish
profession and principles--would gain for them the distinction of uppermost rooms at
feasts, and chief seats in the synagogues, and greetings in the markets, and to
be called of men, Rabbi, Rabbi ("my great one, my great one"), in which their
hearts so much delighted.
In very truth they mostly did represent, in some one or other degree of their
order, what of earnestness and religious zeal there was in the land. Their
name--probably in the first instance not chosen by themselves--had become to some a
byword, to others a party title. And sadly they had declined from their
original tendency--at least in most cases. They were not necessarily "scribes," nor
"lawyers," nor yet "teachers of the law." Nor were they a sect, in the ordinary
sense of the term. But they were a fraternity, which consisted of various
degrees, to which there was a regular novitiate, and which was bound by special vows
and obligations. This fraternity was, so to speak, hereditary; so that St.
Paul could in very truth speak of himself as "a Pharisee of the Pharisees"--"a
Pharisee the son of a Pharisee." That their general principles became dominant,
and that they gave its distinctiveness alike to the teaching and the practices of
the Synagogue, is sufficiently know. But what tremendous influence they must
have wielded to attain this position will best appear from the single fact,
which has apparently been too much overlooked, of their almost incredibly small
numbers. According to Josephus (Ant. xvii,32-45), the number of the fraternity
amounted at the time of Herod only to about six thousand. Yet this inconsiderable
minority could cast Judaism in its mould, and for such terrible evil give its
final direction to the nation! Surely the springs of such a movement must have
reached down to the very heart of Jewish religious life. What these were, and
how they affected the whole community, deserves and requires not merely passing
notice, but special and careful attention.
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