psalms Summary and Overview

The psalms are the production of various authors. "Only a portion of the Book of Psalms claims David as its author. Other inspired poets in successive generations added now one now another contribution to the sacred collection, and thus in the wisdom of Providence it more completely reflects every phase of human emotion and circumstances than it otherwise could." But it is specially to David and his contemporaries that we owe this precious book. In the "titles" of the psalms, the genuineness of which there is no sufficient reason to doubt, 73 are ascribed to David. Peter and John (Acts 4:25) ascribe to him also the second psalm, which is one of the 48 that are anonymous. About two-thirds of the whole collection have been ascribed to David. Psalms 39, 62, and 77 are addressed to Jeduthun, to be sung after his manner or in his choir. Psalms 50 and 73-83 are addressed to Asaph, as the master of his choir, to be sung in the worship of God. The "sons of Korah," who formed a leading part of the Kohathite singers (2 Chr. 20:19), were intrusted with the arranging and singing of Ps. 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, and 88. In Luke 24:44 the word "psalms" means the Hagiographa, i.e., the holy writings, one of the sections into which the Jews divided the Old Testament. (See BIBLE T0000580.) None of the psalms can be proved to have been of a later date than the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, hence the whole collection extends over a period of about 1,000 years. There are in the New Testament 116 direct quotations from the Psalter. The Psalter is divided, after the analogy of the Pentateuch, into five books, each closing with a doxology or benediction: (1.) The first book comprises the first 41 psalms, all of which are ascribed to David except 1, 2, 10, and 33, which, though anonymous, may also be ascribed to him. (2.) Book second consists of the next 31 psalms (42-72), 18 of which are ascribed to David and 1 to Solomon (the 72nd). The rest are anonymous. (3.) The third book contains 17 psalms (73-89), of which the 86th is ascribed to David, the 88th to Heman the Ezrahite, and the 89th to Ethan the Ezrahite. (4.) The fourth book also contains 17 psalms (90-106), of which the 90th is ascribed to Moses, and the 101st and 103rd to David. (5.) The fifth book contains the remaining psalms, 44 in number. Of these, 15 are ascribed to David, and the 127th to Solomon. Ps. 136 is generally called "the great hallel." But the Talmud includes also Ps. 120-135. Ps. 113-118, inclusive, constitute the "hallel" recited at the three great feasts, at the new moon, and on the eight days of the feast of dedication. "It is presumed that these several collections were made at times of high religious life: the first, probably, near the close of David's life; the second in the days of Solomon; the third by the singers of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 20:19); the fourth by the men of Hezekiah (29, 30, 31); and the fifth in the days of Ezra." The Mosaic ritual makes no provision for the service of song in the worship of God. David first taught the Church to sing the praises of the Lord. He first introduced into the ritual of the tabernacle music and song. Divers names are given to the psalms. (1.) Some bear the Hebrew designation "shir" (Gr. ode, a song). Thirteen have this title. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This title includes secular as well as sacred song. (2.) Fifty-eight psalms bear the designation (Heb.) "mitsmor" (Gr. psalmos, a psalm), a lyric ode, or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument. (3.) Ps. 145, and many others, have the designation (Heb.) "tehillah" (Gr. hymnos, a hymn), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God. (4.) Six psalms (16, 56-60) have the title (Heb.) "michtam" (q.v.). (5.) Ps. 7 and Hab. 3 bear the title (Heb.) "shiggaion" (q.v.).

THE BOOK OF PSALMS A psalm, from a Greek word signifying "to strike the lyre," "to play," "to sing," is a lyric poem of religious character and aim - a song in praise of God. The collection, or rather series of collections, of Hebrew Psalms is called in the Hebrew Bible "Praises," or "Book of Praises," praise of God being the predominant character even of the Psalms of repentance and sorrow; in the Septuagint, "Psalms" or "Psalter," a stringed instrument on which the accompaniment was played; and in the N.T., "Psalms" or "The Book of Psalms." In our canon it occupies the principal place among the poetical books, preceded by Job and followed by the Solomonic writings. This collection of one hundred and fifty Psalms forms the first hymn-book for public worship, and is even to this day in more general use among all churches as a manual of private devotion and public worship than any Christian hymn-book. This fact is the best vindication of the Psalms against fault-finding writers.
Division of the Psalms. - In the Hebrew Bible the Psalms are divided into five distinct collections or books. The close of each is indicated by a doxology and a double 'Amen," which were added, not by the authors, but by the collectors for liturgical purposes. Book I. contains forty-one Psalms, of which thirty-seven are of David and four anonymous - viz., 1, 2, 10, and 33. Book II. contains thirty-one Psalms - from 42 to 72 - by different authors: seven by the sons of Korah, one by Asaph, nineteen by David, three anonymous, and one by Solomon or for Solomon, after which the note is appended, "The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended." Ps, 72:20. Book III. contains seventeen Psalms - from 73 to 89: eleven by Asaph, four by the sons of Korah, one by David (86), and one by Ethan the Ezrahite (89). Book IV. contains seventeen Psalms - from 90 to 106: one by Moses (90), two by David (101 and 103), the rest anonymous. Book V. contains forty-four Psalms - from 107 to 150: fifteen of David, one of Solomon, and the rest anonymous, including the fifteen Songs of Degrees, or pilgrim songs (120-134), and closing with the Hallelujah Psalms (146-150).
This division is traced back to the time of Nehemiah, as in 1 Chr 16:35-36 there is a free quotation from the concluding doxology of the fourth book. Ps 106:47-48. It is marked in the Septuagint, and mentioned but rejected by some of the Fathers, as opposed to the authority of the apostle, who speaks of the "Book of Psalms." Acts 1:20. The principle has been variously stated as an analogy to the five Books of Moses, as a chronological order, as an arrangement by authors, by contents, for liturgical purposes, etc. It seems, however, that the grouping of the Psalms was not controlled by any one principle exclusively, though, on the other hand, the division shows too much method to be considered arbitrary or accidental. The collectors probably so arranged the Psalms as to combine historical, dogmatic, and liturgical order with convenience for public use - much in the same manner as many Christian hymn-books combine the order of subjects with that of the festivals of the church-year, sacrificing merely logical consistency to practical convenience. Minor collections were made at different times - such as the Korahite selection, the "Pilgrim Songs," Songs of Degrees, the Hallelujah Psalms - and were afterward incorporated in the larger divisions. A few Psalms are repeated with some variations in different books - viz.. 14 and 53; the latter part of 40 and 70; 57, 60, and 108- which proves that the five books were originally separate collections. The time of the final completion of the collection cannot be positively fixed; the last two collections must have been made after the Captivity, as is shown by the style and subject of some of the Psalms included in them. The whole collection was probably completed at the time of Ezra. At all events, the present Psalter is a gradual work, and reflects the piety of several generations - from the golden age of the theocracy to the return from exile.
The Inscriptions. - All the Psalms, with the exception of thirty-four, which in the Talmud are called "Orphan Psalms," have titles or superscriptions which in the Hebrew text are numbered as verse 1, while in the English Version they are more properly separated from the text and printed in small type as headings. Some also regard the phrase "Hallelujah, Praise ye the Lord!" at the beginning of several Psalms as a title, and thus reduce the number of Psalms without titles to twenty-four. The origin of these titles is unknown. They were probably added by the collectors of the several books, and resemble in this respect the headings of the Gospels and the subscriptions at the close of the Epistles in the N.T. They are, however, of great antiquity, and often of much value for the interpretation. They are found in all the Hebrew manuscripts, and embody the popular traditions concerning the authorship, historical occasion, musical character, etc., prior to the Greek translation. In some instances their meaning has been lost, and the Septuagint does not even attempt a translation; but, so far as we are able to interpret them, they give us valuable information about the authors - David, Asaph, the sons of Korah, etc.; the particular kind of poem; the musical and liturgical character the particular instrument used for accompaniment; the historical and personal occasion, etc. Notices of the last kind, however, occur only in the Psalms of David, and refer mostly to events in his life. Many of them are copied, word for word, from the historical books. Comp. Ps 52 with 1 Sam 22:9: Ps 54 with 1 Sam 23:19; Ps 56 with 1 Sam 21:11-15. Much dispute has been occasioned by the term "Selah," which is not found in the inscriptions, but in the body of the Psalms; but most probably it gives simply a musical direction.
Character of the Psalms. - It is a remarkable fact that the Psalms, written by pious Jews centuries before Christ, have been used in the Christian Church down to this day for the highest purposes of devotion, and that they answer this object now as well as ever, among Greeks, Latins, and Protestants of all names. Some denominations in Scotland and the United States to this day use them almost exclusively in public worship. We can ask for no stronger proof of the inspiration of the Psalms. They spring from the deep fountains of the human heart in its intercourse with God. They express the general religious feelings of thanks and praise, of repentance, grief, despondency, hope, and joy; and they do this in such a manner as to find an echo in every pious soul in every age and in every clime. It is true we cannot always feel the full force of every Psalm, and often we would like to know more of the particular situation out of which it has grown, in order that we may understand all its details. The Psalms are poems, and, like other poems, they require a corresponding state of feeling in order to open up their whole inner meaning. Some Psalms can only be appreciated in seasons of peculiar trial and distress; others only in times of persecution from without: still others only on occasions of festive joy and exaltation. But the more varied our religious experience is, the more we wonder at the fertility and applicability of the Psalms to all conditions of life. Hence no books of the Bible, except the Gospels, have taken such a hold upon the heart of Christendom as have the Psalms. For centuries they were the only hymn-book and prayer-book of the Jewish and Christian Churches. They have suggested many of the noblest Christian hymns. They are to this day indispensable feeders of public and private devotion in all parts of the world, and will continue to be to the end of time. There is something exceedingly elevating and comforting in the idea that our religious feelings have moved the saints of God in all ages - that Moses and David and Asaph gave utterance to our own spiritual experiences.
Authors of the Psalms. - The composition of the Psalms embraces a period of nearly a thousand years, from Moses to the return from the Captivity or the time of Ezra, but most of them belong to the reigns of David and Solomon. About two-thirds of them are ascribed in the titles to specific authors, as follows:(1) To David, eighty - viz., 1-41 (including 1 and 2, which are anonymous) 51-71, 101-103, 108-110, 122, 124, 131-133, 138-145. He is the largest contributor and the master-singer of Israel; hence the whole collection is frequently called "The Psalms of David." The general characteristics of these eighty Psalms are simplicity, freshness, vigor, and a rare combination of childlike tenderness with heroic faith; and, viewed as a whole, they present a picture of a man severely struggling, through internal and external obstacles, toward the city of God. (2) To Asaph, twelve Psalms - 73-83 and 50. Asaph, of the tribe of Levi, was one of David's musicians and leader of the choir, 1 Chr 15:17, 1 Chr 15:19; 2 Chr 29:30, and his Psalms have a more didactic character. (3) To the sons of Korah, a family of poetical priests of the age of David, 1 Chr 6:16; 1 Chr 9:19; 1 Chr 26:1-2; 2 Chr 20:19 fourteen Psalms, corresponding to the fourteen classes of singers of that family - viz., 42-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. Seven of them belong to the age of David and Solomon. But, properly speaking, only eleven Psalms belong to the sons of Korah. Psalms 42 and 43 are reckoned as one, and 88 and 89 bear also the names of Heman and Ethan. These Psalms are generally distinguished by poetic vivacity and bold flight of imagination. (4) To Solomon, two: 72 and 127. (5) To Moses one: 90.
Classification of the Psalms according to their Contents.
I. Psalms of Adoration and Praise: Ps. 8, 19, 24, 33, 34, 36, 96, 100, 103, 107, 121, and the Hallelujah Psalms, 146-150.
II. Psalms of Thanksgiving for mercies: To individuals, Ps. 9, 18, 22, 30. To the people of Israel, Ps. 46, 48, 65, 98.
III. Penitential Psalms: Ps. 6, 25, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143.
IV. Pilgrim Psalms for festive journeys to Jerusalem ("Songs of Degrees" - i.e., steps, ascension): Ps. 120-134.
V. Historical Psalms, recording God's merciful and righteous dealing with his people in time past: Ps. 78, 105. 106.
VI. Prophetic and Messianic Psalms, based upon the promise to David and his house (2 Sam 7:12-16): Ps. 2, 8. 16, 22, 40, 45, 68, 69, 72, 97, 110, 118.
VII. Didactic Psalms: (a) On the character and fate of the righteous and the wicked: Ps. 1, 5, 7, 9-12, 14, 15, 17, 24, 25. (b) On the excellency of God's law: Ps. 19, 119. (c) On the vanity of human life: Ps. 39, 49, 90. (d) On the duty of rulers: Ps. 82, 101.
VIII. Imprecatory Psalms, mostly by David: Ps. 35, 52, 58, 59, 69, 109, 137.

(See DAVID; POETRY.) The Hebrew designation tehillim, "praises" or hymns," occurring only in the title of Psalm 145 and about 30 times in the body of the Psalms, applies only to some not to all the psalms. The glorification of God is the design of them all, even the penitentiary and precatory psalms; but tehilliym applies strictly to praise songs alone, tephillowt to the prayer songs; Psalm 17; Psalm 72 end, closing the second book of Psalms, Psalm 86; 90; 102 title. No one Hebrew title comprehends all.

The Greek Septuagint has given the title "Psalms" (from psalloo "to play an instrument") applied to the whole collection. The Hebrew mizmor designates 65 psalms; in the Syriac version it comprises the whole (from zaamar "to decorate"), psalms of artificial, adorned structure (Hengstenberg). "A rhythmical composition" (Lowth). "Psalms," the designation most applicable to the whole book, means songs accompanied by an instrument, especially the harp (1 Chronicles 16:4-9; 2 Chronicles 5:12-13). Shir, "a joyful thanksgiving song," is prefixed only to some. The various kinds are specified in Ephesians 5:19; "psalms (accompanied by an instrument), hymns (indirect praise of God), ... spiritual songs (joyous lyric pieces; contrast Amos 8:10)."

TITLES. Their genuineness is confirmed by their antiquity (which is proved by their being unintelligible to the Septuagint translators of the Hebrew into Greek), and by their presence in the greatest number of manuscripts, and in fragments of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. Their obscurity and occasional want of connection with the psalm's contents (as title Psalm 34) are incompatible with their origination from forgers. The orientals, moreover, usually prefix titles to poems (Habakkuk 3:1; Isaiah 38:9); so David (2 Samuel 23:1). The enigmatical titles, found only in the psalms of David and of David's singers, accord with Eastern taste. They are too "poetical, spirited, and profound for any later collector" (Hengstenberg). So David's "bow song" (2 Samuel 1:18), his enigmatical designation for "the song on him expert with the bow" (2 Samuel 1:22).

The historical hints in some titles give a clue to the dates. If the titles were added by later hands, how is it that they are wanting in those psalms where conjecture could most easily have had place, namely, the non-Davidic psalms of the fourth and fifth books, whereas they appear in the most regular and complete form in David's psalms, next in those of his singers? Now these are just the ones where conjecture is given no room for exercise; for the titles do not apparently illustrate these psalms, but are a memorial of the events which most deeply impressed David's own mind. In the last two books the historical occasions do not occur in the titles, because cycles of psalms mainly compose these books, and among such cycles psalms of an individual reference hardly have place.

DIVISIONS. Davidic basis of the whole. The Psalms form one "book"; so the Lord refers to them (Luke 20:42), so His apostles (Acts 1:20). The fathers, Ambrose (on Psalm 40) and Jerome to Cyprian (2:695), describe the Psalms as five books in one volume. Based on and corresponding to the historical Pentateuch, they form a poetical "Pentateuch" (Epiphanius, de Mens., c. 5), extending from Moses to the times of Malachi "the Hebrew history set to music an oratorio in five parts, with Messiah for its subject" (Wordsworth). The Psalms, like the Pentateuch, being used in divine worship, are the people's answer to God's address to them in the law, i.e. the expression of their pious feelings called forth by the word of God. The close of each of the five books is marked by a doxology. The "blessed be the Lord God of Israel" is taken up by Zacharias, as fulfilled in Christ (Leviticus 1:68-71; Psalm 106:48). Book I includes Psalm 1-41; Book II, Psalm 42-72; Book III, Psalm 73-89; Book IV, Psalm 90-106; Book V, Psalm 107-150.

Book I is according to the titles Davidic; accordingly there is no trace of any author hut David. The objection from the "temple" (Psalm 5:7) being mentioned is groundless, for in 1 Samuel 1:9; 1 Samuel 3:3, it is similarly used for the tabernacle long before Solomon's temple was built. The argument for a post-Babylonian date from the phrase "bring back the captivity" (Psalm 14:7) is invalid; it is a Hebraism for reversing one's misfortunes (Job 42:10). Nor does the acrosticism in Psalm 25 prove a late date, for acrosticism appears in psalms acknowledged to be David's (Psalm 9). In Books II and III David's singers have borrowed from David (excepting "a song of the beloved" Psalm 45, and Psalm 46, "upon Alamoth") everything peculiar in his superscriptions; see Psalm 42; 43; 44; 84; 86. "Selah" is restricted to David and his singers; but "hallelujah" is never found in his or their psalms.

So also "to the chief musician," (committing the psalm to the music conductor to prepare for musical performance in the public service: 1 Chronicles 15:21 Hebrew and margin, compare 1 Chronicles 15:22,) is limited to David's and their psalms. The writer of 2 Samuel 22 evidently turned into prose David's poetical superscription (Psalm 18); so the writer of 1 Samuel 19:11; 1 Samuel 21:13-14; 1 Samuel 23:19, had before him the titles of Psalm 34; 54; 59. Hezekiah's "writing" (miktab) alludes probably to David's miktam (a "secret," or "song of deep import"), Psalm 56; 57 titles, for it was he who restored David's psalms to their liturgical use in the temple (2 Chronicles 29:30). This imitation of David's title, and still more the correspondence of his prayer to David's psalms (Psalm 102:24; Psalm 27:13; Psalm 49:1; Psalm 6:5; Psalm 30:9), is a presumption for the authenticity of David's and his singers' psalms and their titles.

Habakkuk similarly leans upon David's superscriptions, as also upon his psalms. Habakkuk 3:1, "Shiggaion," compare title Psalm 7:1, "Son of David"; Habakkuk 3:19, "to the chief musician on my stringed instruments" is derived from the titles Psalm 4; 6. So the "Selah" (Psalm 6:9; Psalm 6:13) which occurs only in the psalms of David and his singers. The absence of the authors' names from most of the psalms in the fourth and fifth books implies that none of them have an individual and personal character, as the Davidic psalms have. In all such the psalmist represents the community. The later groups of psalms rest on the Davidic, and echo the poetry of David. Even in the psalms of David's singers, the authors, except Asaph (Psalm 1; 74) who was immediately associated with David, do not give their individual names.

PRINCIPLE OF SELECTION. Not all Israel's lyric poetry but only.

(1) such as is directly religious is included in the psalter, therefore not David's dirge over Saul and Jonathan (2 Samuel 1:17-27). Also

(2) only the psalms applicable to the whole church and therefore suited to the public services of the sanctuary. The individual psalmist represents the religious community whose mouthpiece he is. 2 Samuel 23:1; David sings in his typical and representative character; no other psalmist in the book has personal references. Hence Hezekiah's prayer (Isaiah 38) and Jonah's thanksgiving are excluded as too personal.

(3) Only such as were composed trader the Holy Spirit's inspiration. The very musicians who founded the sacred music were inspired (1 Chronicles 25:1, "prophesy with harps"), much more the psalmists themselves. Asaph, the writer of some psalms, was a "seer" (2 Chronicles 29:30).

David spoke "in the Spirit." Christ testifies (Matthew 22:41-46), He classes" the Psalms," the chief book of the chetubim or hagiographa, with "the law and the prophets" (Luke 24:44). The Messianic prophetic element in David leans on Nathan's prophecy (2 Samuel 7). Subsequent prophets develop David's Messianic predictions. The Psalms draw out of the typical ceremonial of the law its tuner spirit, adapting it to the various requirements of the individual and the congregation. By their help the Israelite could enter into the living spirit of the law, and realizing his need of the promised Saviour look for Him of whom the Psalms testify. They are a treasury from which we can draw the inner experiences of Old Testament saints and express our corresponding feelings, under like circumstances, in their divinely sanctioned language of praise and prayer.

CLASSIFICATION.

(1) Psalms of joy and gratitude, shir, lethodah "for confession" or ascription of praise (Psalm 100), tehillah (Psalm 145).

(2) Psalms under sorrow, giving birth to prayer: tephillah, "prayer song" (Psalm 90), lehazkir "to put God in remembrance" of His people's needs (Psalm 38; 70), leanot "concerning the affliction" (Psalm 88), altaseheeth "destroy not" (Psalm 57; 58; 59).

(3) Didactic and calmly meditative: Psalm 1; 15; 31; 49. The title Maschil is absent from some didactic psalms and present in others, because its design is to mark as didactic only those in which the "instruction" is covert and so might be overlooked. Thirteen are so designated, mostly of David's time. The later, composed in times of national peril, breathe a spirit of too intense feeling to admit of the calm didactic style. Moreover Solomon's proverbs subsequently to David took the place of the didactic psalms. But some maschil psalms still were composed, and these more lyric in tone and less sententious and maxim-like in style than Proverbs.

ORDER. The Holy Spirit doubtless directed the compiler in arranging as well as the writers in composing the psalms. The first psalm begins, as the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:3), and the second closes, with "blessed." Thus this pair, announcing the blessedness of the godly and the doom of the ungodly in the coming judgment, fitly prefaces the Psalms as John the Baptist's announcement of the final judgment preludes the gospel (Matthew 3). "A spiritual epitome of all history (Wordsworth); the godly "meditate in the law of the Lord," the ungodly "meditate a vain thing" (Psalm 1:2; Psalm 2:1). The five dosing the psalter begin and end with "hallelujah." The principle of arrangement is not: wholly chronological, though David's book of psalms is first of the five, and the post captivity book of psalms last; for Moses' psalm (Psalm 90), the oldest of all, begins the fourth book, and some of David's psalms are in the fifth. Also the 15 songs of degrees, i.e. ascents of the pilgrims to the three national feasts at Jerusalem, though written at different times, form one group.

Spiritual affinity and the relation to one another and to the whole modify the chronological arrangement. The arrangement in some instances is so significant as to indicate, it to be the work of the Spirit, not of the collector merely. Thus, Psalm 22 portrays Messiah's death scene, Psalm 23. His rest in paradise, Psalm 24. His ascension (Acts 2:25-27; Acts 2:37). "At the time the Psalms were written" they were not of such use to those among whom they were written as they are to us, for they were written to prophesy the New Testament among those who lived under the Old Testament" (Augustine on Psalm 101; 1 Peter 1:10-12.) The one great theme ultimately meant is Christ, the antitypical David, in respect to His inner life as the Godman, and in His past, present, and future relations to the church and the world (Luke 24:25; Luke 24:27; Luke 24:45-46). The Psalter rightly holds the middle place of the Bible, being the heart of both Old Testament and New Testament.

Other scriptures of the Old Testament have corresponding scriptures in the New Testament The Pentateuch and Old Testament histories answer to the Gospels and Acts; Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the prophets to the epistles; the Song of Solomon and Daniel to Revelation. The Psalms alone have no counterpart in the New Testament, except the songs of the Virgin, Zacharias and Simeon (Luke 1; 2), because the psalter belongs to both Testaments alike, being "the hymnbook of the universal church" (Wordsworth). There is scarcely a place in the Psalms where the voices of Christ and the church are not to be found (Augustine on Psalm 59). Christ's sufferings and conflict, ending in His reign, appear most in Books I, II; Israel's prostration in Book III; the fruits of His victory, the Lord s reign, and Israel's restoration after her past pilgrim state, in Book IV; the songs of degrees, i.e. the church's pilgrim ascents below, "coming up from the wilderness, leaning upon her Beloved," and her everlasting hallelujahs, in Book V.

AUTHORS: David composed 80 of the Psalms, Asaph wrote four, singers of his school front penned eight, the sons of Korah of David's and Solomon's times seven, Solomon two. To Jehoshaphat's time belong Psalm 47; Psalm 48; Psalm 83. (See JEHOSHAPHAT.) The occasion of Psalm 47 was his bloodless victory over Moab, Ammon, Edom, and the Arabians, who combined to drive Judah out of their "inheritance" (Psalm 47:4; 2 Chronicles 20:11). The title ascribes the psalm to "the sons of Korah," just as in 2 Chronicles 20:19 the Korahites are in front of the Jews' army "to praise the Lord God of Israel with a loud voice on high"; so Psalm 47:5 answers to 2 Chronicles 20:26. Psalm 47 was perhaps sung in the valley of Bernehah (blessing); Psalm 48 in the temple service on their return (compare Psalm 47:9). As Jehoshaphat was "in the fore front" of the returning people (2 Chronicles 20:27), so "Jehovah with the sound of a trumpet went up" to His earthly temple (Psalm 47:5).

So "the fear of God was on all the kingdoms" (Psalm 47:8-9; compare 2 Chronicles 20:28-29). The breaking of Jehoshaphat's Tarshish ships is alluded to Psalm 48:7, his ungodly alliance being as great a danger from within as the hostile invasion from without; both alike the grace of God averted. (See JAHAZIEL; BERACHAH.) To the time of the overthrow of Sennacherib's host under Hezekiah belong Psalm 46; Psalm 75; Psalm 76; Psalm 87. (See HEZEKIAH.) To the time of the carrying away of Israel's ten tribes belong Psalm 77; Psalm 80; Psalm 81. Judah intercedes with God for her captive sister; "of Asaph" in the title may mean only that one of his school wrote under his name as the master of the school. The remaining 46, except Moses' Psalm 90, were written just before, during, and after the Babylonian captivity. As the psalms took their rise in the religious awakening under David, so the long times of growing declension subsequently were barren of additions to the psalter. The only times of such additions were those of religious revivals, namely, under Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah (to whose reign probably belong Psalm 77; Psalm 92; Psalm 100; this series has the common theme, Jehovah's manifestation for His people's comfort and their foes' confusion).

The captivity taught the people a bitter but wholesome lesson; then accordingly psalmody revived. After the last new song sung to the Lord at the completion of the city walls under Nehemiah, no new psalm was composed under inspiration. The written word thenceforth took the place of the inspired speakers of prophecy and song. David gave the tone to all the succeeding psalms, so that, in a sense, he is their author. Recognition of God's retributive righteousness as a preservative against despair (in undesigned coincidence with the history, 1 Samuel 30:6), and the sudden interposition of divine consolation amidst sorrowful complaints, are characteristic of his psalms. They are more elevated, and abound in rare forms, from whence arises their greater difficulty. He first introduced the alphabetical arrangement; also the grouping of verses with reference to numbers, and the significancy of the recurrence of the names of God; also the combining of psalms in pairs, and in larger cycles. The divine promise to his line in 2 Samuel 7 forms the basis of many of his Messianic prophecies, as Psalm 138-145; compare with Psalm 140:1; 2 Samuel 22:49.

Wordsworth suggests Psalm 41 and Psalm 71, at the close of Books I and II respectively, were written at the time of Adonijah's, Joab's, and Abiathar's conspiracy when David was old and languishing, yet "in the strength of the Lord God" enabled to rise afresh in the person of Solomon his son, whose throne in Messiah is to be everlasting, as Psalm 72 sets forth. Of Asaph's psalms, four are composed by David's chief musician: Psalm 50; Psalm 73; Psalm 78 (warning Ephraim not to rebel against God's transfer of their prerogative to Zion and Judah), Psalm 82; a didactic and prophetic character marks them all. Eight others (Psalm 74-77; Psalm 79-81; Psalm 83), marked by his name, belong to singers in later times, who regarded him as their founder, just as the sons (followers) of Korah regarded Korah. The Hebrew le-before a name in the title designates the author. Psalm 74:8 answers to Jeremiah 52:13; Jeremiah 52:17; the psalmist was probably one of the few Jews left by the Chaldaeans "in the land." So also Psalm 79:1 alludes to the temple's "defilement" by the Chaldees (Jeremiah 10:25 quotes Psalm 79:6).

The psalms of the sons of Korah are fourteen, of which seven belong to David's and Solomon's times, and seven to later times. Psalm 42; Psalm 43; Psalm 84; Psalm 86 (according to Hengstenberg, as occurring in the midst of Korahitic psalms though superscribed with David's name), refer to Absaiom's rebellion; Psalm 44 on the invasion of the Edomites (2 Samuel 8:13; 1 Chronicles 18:12; 1 Kings 11:15-16); Psalm 49 of general import; Psalm 45 on King Messiah's marriage to Israel and the church, in Solomon's time; Psalm 47; Psalm 48; Psalm 83, in Jehoshaphat's time; Psalm 46; Psalm 87, refer to Sennacherib's host overthrown before Jerusalem, in Hezekiah's reign; Psalm 85; Psalm 88; Psalm 89, before the Babylonian captivity.

Neither Heman nor the sons of Heman are named in the superscriptions, but the sons of Korah; perhaps because Heman, though musical and head of the Korahitic singers, was not also poetically gifted as was Asaph; Psalm 88, is gloom throughout, yet the title calls it (shir) a "song" of joy; this can only refer to Psalm 89 which follows being paired with it; it was when the "anointed" of David's throne (Josiah) had his "crown profaned on the ground," being not able to" stand in the battle" (Psalm 89:43), and his son Jehoahaz after a three months' reign was carried to Egypt by Pharaoh Necho (2 Chronicles 35:20-25; 2 Chronicles 36:1-4; Psalm 89:45); the title, "to the chief musician," shows the temple was standing, Josiah had just before caused a religious revival.

NUMBERS IN ARRANGEMENT. The decalogue has its form determined by number; also the genealogy in Matthew; so the Lord's prayer, and especially the structure of the Apocalypse. So Isaiah 1 represents Israel's revolt in seven, divided into three and four, the four for the sinfulness, and the three for the revolt. And Isaiah 52:13-53;Isaiah 52:12; the introduction three verses (Isaiah 52:13-15) with the concluding two verses (Isaiah 53:11-12) making up five, the half; the main part comprises ten (Isaiah 53:1-10), divided into seven for Messiah's humiliation (three of which represent Messiah's sufferings, four their cause, His being our substitute) and three for His glorification (Hengstenberg). Similarly, the form of the several psalms is regulated by numbers, especially seven divided into four and three. The correctness of our division into verses is hence confirmed. The criticism too which would dismember the psalms is proved at least in their case, and in that of whatever Scriptures are arranged by numbers, to be false.

NAMES or GOD. A similar proof of the correctness of the text appears in the fact that the ELOHIM psalms are peculiar to the first three books, those of David, Asaph, and the sons of Korah. So strange had "ELOHIM" become in later times that only the Jehovah psalms of David were inserted in the later books, excepting David's Psalm 108 introductory to Psalm 109 and Psalm 110. The three form a trilogy: Psalm 108 anticipating triumph over the foe, Psalm 109 the foe's condemnation, Psalm 110 Messiah's divine kingly and priestly glory. In the fifth book Elohim occurs only seven times, i.e. six times in Psalm 108 and once in David's Psalm 144. It is an undesigned coincidence and proof of genuineness that in independent sacred history David uses Elohim as a favorite term (2 Samuel 7; 1 Chronicles 28:20; 1 Chronicles 29:1). In Book I "Jehovah" occurs 272 times, Elohim 15 times; in Book II, Elohim 164 times, Jehovah 30 times; in Book III, Jehovah 44 times, Elohim 43 times; in Book IV, Jehovah 103 times, Elohim, not once; in Book V, Jehovah 236 times, Elohim 7 times.

Hengstenberg suggests the reason of David's predilection for "Elohim." The pagan regarded Jehovah as designating the local God of Israel, but not God absolutely, possessing the whole fullness of the Godhead. So David felt it unnecessary to express "Jehovah," because He was unquestionably Israel's God; it was only contested whether He was Elohim. David boldly, in the face of mighty nations, asserts the nullity of their gods and the sole Godhead of Jehovah; compare Psalm 18:31, "who is Elohim but Jehovah?" Jehovah is understood before Elohim in Elohim psalms, as the doxology at the end of the second book recognizes, "blessed be Jehovah Elohim" (Psalm 72:18). Latterly when the falsely called Elohim of surrounding nations began to be honoured in Israel the term gave place to Jehovah for expressing the true God. Psalm 18 is "a great hallelujah, with which David retires from tide theater of life."

I. The first book (Psalm 1-4) the Davidic-Jehovah psalms.

II. The second book (Psalm 42-72) the Elohim psalms; namely, of David's singers, the sons of Korah (Psalm 42-49), Asaph's (Psalm 1.), then David's Elohim psalms (Psalm 51-71), Solomon's Elohim psalm (Psalm 72).

III. Psalm 73-89, the Jehovah psalms of David's singers; of Asaph (Psalm 73; Psalm 83), of the sons of Korah (Psalm 84-89). Thus in the arrangement the Jehovah psalms (Jehovah being the fundamental name) enclose the Elohim psalms; so the first book doxology begins with Jehovah; the second has, let Jehovah Elohim be praised; the third, let Jehovah be praised.

IV. (Psalm 90-106.) The psalms of David in the last two books are inserted as component parts into the later cycles. The subscription, Psalm 72:20, "the prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended," distinguishes the detached from the serial psalms of David; so Job 31:40 is not contradicted by his again speaking in Job 40; Job 42. Moses' Psalm 90 is put after David's and his singers' psalms, because David was so preeminent as the sweet psalmist of Israel. Psalm 91-100 are connected. Then follows David's trilogy, Psalm 101-103, and the trilogy of the captivity (Psalm 104-106).

V. Psalm 107-150 are (excepting David's psalms incorporated) after the return from the captivity. The dodecad Psalm 108-119, is composed of a trilogy of David introducing nine psalms sung at laying the foundation of the second temple. Psalm 119 is the sermon (composed by Ezra) after the Hallel, to urge Israel to regard God's word as her national safeguard. Psalm 120-134, the pilgrim songs ("songs of degrees"), namely, four psalms of David, one of Solomon, and ten nameless ones, are appropriate to the time of the interruption of the temple building. (See EZRA.) Psalm 135-146 (including David's psalms incorporated with the rest) celebrate its happy completion.

Psalm 147-150 were sung at the consecration of the city walls under Nehemiah. J. F. Thrupp (Smith's Bible Dictionary) maintains that as Psalm 73-83 do not all proceed from Asaph, but from members of the choir which he founded, so the psalms in Books III, IV, V, inscribed with the name of David, were written by his royal representatives for the time being (Hezekiah, Josiah, Zerubbabel, etc.), who prefer honouring the name of their ancestor to obtruding their own names. But why then should one of the psalms in question be inscribed with" Solomon" rather than David? The psalms accord with David's circumstances; their containing phrases of David's former psalms is not inconsistent with his authorship, as the sacred authors often repeat their own inspired words. The Chaldaisms of Psalm 139 are due to David's adapting uncommon phrases to a lofty theme.

In 2 Maccabees the collection of David's psalms is attributed to Nehemiah. Jerome, Ep. ad Sophronium, and the Synopsis in Athanasius, ascribe the collection to Ezra, "the priest and ready scribe in the law of Moses" (Ezra 7:6; Nehemiah 8:9). (On SHIGGAION, etc., see the words as they occur.) Finally, if we would "taste the honey of God" we must "have the palate of faith." "Attune thy heart to the psalm. If the psalm prays, pray thou; if it mourns, mourn thou; if it hopes, hope thou; if it fears, fear thou. Everything, in the psalter, is the looking glass of the soul" (Augustine on Psalm 96 and Psalm 30). The heart, the lips, and the life must be in accord with the psalm, to derive the full blessing. "