?_ ÿÿÿÿEˆýôl!í1Ù:The History Of Rome©2001 Bible History Online#RR("mmsystem","sndPlaySound","Su")3CB("btn_glossary","&Glossary","JI(`',`GLOSSARY')")ZmainThe History Of RomeÚöüÄZhlpwnd02Table of Contents¬ýZhlpwnd03History of Rome - Part 1Ë©üZhlpwnd04Timeline(È Zhlpwnd05Dates in Historyä–=Zhlpwnd06Window 6  /&;)z4ÿÿUUÿÿÿÿ|CONTEXTi|CTXOMAP®Ð|FONT.Î|KWBTREE Ù|KWDATA±×|KWMAPîØ|SYSTEM|TOPIC<|TTLBTREE:é|bm0˜ |bm1{|bm10wÔ|bm11wâ|bm12¡ò|bm13Å |bm14˜0 |bm15|W |bm16¬z |bm17žŒ |bm18О |bm19i° |bm2ŸŸ|bm20<^ |bm21¾r |bm22• |bm23Eð |bm24! |bm25™C |bm26 ^ |bm27_€ |bm28ý– |bm29P¹ |bm3Á|bm30¡Ô |bm31WY|bm32ï|bm33âË|bm34Žî|bm35β|bm36ÝÔ|bm37×|bm38ñŠ|bm39AÏ|bm4Œã|bm40¹ñ|bm41ÔN|bm42ûœ|bm43;¬|bm44B»|bm45nÞ|bm46w |bm47.|bm48l>|bm49¢`|bm5êæ|bm50p{|bm51É´|bm52§â|bm53'|bm54GZ|bm55œ…|bm56¨|bm57Ù|bm58` |bm59?´|bm6¾é|bm60|ç|bm61² |bm62|bm63þ_|bm64|bm65–¤|bm66›Ç|bm67HÖ|bm68ºH|bm69+¸|bm7ãë|bm70)è|bm71þ<|bm72©É|bm73©K|bm74€F|bm75eS|bm8O¯|bm9v±òÆéÆÿÿÿÿ c2ÿÿÿÿo1ðÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿoüWelcome!PI(`',`GLOS_BKA_40_x_Registered_Version')G üF \€€ëw»ý(€†"€‰€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)= o91™ ÿÿÿÿR ÿÿÿÿ9• IntroductionÆüÿE X€€€†"€€‚€‚€€‚€€€‚ÿ"History is very near to poetry, and may be considered in some sense to be poetry in prose." -Quintillian2910 .€€€‚€‚€‚€‚ÿJesus came in the "fulness of time" according to the Bible. Unconscious to the builders yet framed by the handiwork of an almighty maker of the ages, the world was ready for the gospel to be preached to all nations and history records a world that was "turned upside down" with the message about Jesus Christ.Adventurers like Philip of Macedon, conquerors like Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, philosophers like Socrates and Plato, military leaders, administrators, soldiers, merchants, slaves and all kinds of people who knew so little and cared less about God's plan and the promised Jewish Messiah, yet were the unconscious builders of a bridge between east and west which the great gospel of the Kingdom of God would pass on to achieve world dominion.·‰ÿè. *€€€‚âž–‰€‚ÿThe general rise and fall of empires were all predicted by the ancient Jewish prophet Daniel, who might be considered the "empire predicting prophet" because while he was living in Babylon as a wise man in the palace of king Nebuchadnezzar (Nabu-kudurri-usur II) he prophesied by the Word of the Lord concerning the rise and fall of many world governing empires that would appear after Babylon, namely Persia, then Greece, then Rome, and sometime far into the future (the last days) there would be a second Roman Empire. He even went so far as to give the exact time that the Jewish Messiah would die (be "cut off"). According to Daniel chapter 9 there would be 69 weeks or sabbatical years (7 year periods) after the proclamation of Artaxerxes Longimanus (ruler of Persia) for the Jews to restore and rebuild Jerusalem (cf. Neh 2:5). According to history, Jesus died on Passover of that same year.71 3 4€ €€‚€‚€‚€€‚ÿDaniel also spoke of the Kingdom that would ultimately one day rule the world:Dan 7:13-14 "I was watching in the night visions, and behold, One like the Son of Man, coming with the clouds of heaven! He came to the Ancient of Days, and they brought Him near before Him. Then to Him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve Him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and His kingdom the one which shall not be destroyed."²ƒèÑ / ,€€€‚€€‚€‚ÿMy purpose in this general survey of ancient Rome is to give a simple panorama of the history and events that took place in forming Rome and her empire. I've tried to make all of my help programs simple, somewhat informative, and honest. But what really matters is what they do for you. Please let me know what you think. The easiest way is to use email: rusty@bible-history.com]7 . & €n€€€‚ÿ". . . God be gracious to you . . ." (Gen 43:29)g?Ñ • ( €~€€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)A. Ö 1þH¯‚ÿÿÿÿÖ ŸCThe Dawn of Romesæ• I è€Õ€€†"€€‚€ëtÔèÌ€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚ÿ "Remember, Roman, that it is for thee to rule the nations. This shall be thy task, to impose the ways of peace, tospare the vanquished, and to tame the proud by war." -- Virgil's AeneidÍÖ X@6 :€›€€‚ë³&Y¿‰€‚€‚ÿThe traditional date for the founding of Rome was 753 BC. Rome is located near the center of the Italian Peninsula, which is neIX@• ar the center of the great Mediterranean Sea. (see Prehistoric Italy)5I@/ .€€€†"€€‚ÿ PX@ÝB6 :€5€€‚âåòyy‰€‚€‚€‚ÿAlong with all of her hills and the wonderful mountains called the Appenines and the Tiber River close by, were very rich and fertile places for farmers to settle and grow all kinds of crops including wheat, olives, and grapes. It was in this area that a small group of Latin peoples emerged and the city of Rome would spread from seven small hills on the Tiber to encompass an Empire of several million square miles. Along with a common bond of government and a great network of 300 major roads Rome would become a world city.ÂŽ@ŸC4 6€€€‚€€‚€‚‚€‚ÿIn the words of a poet, Rome had: "made one City, where once was a world."©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)BÝBáC1ÃR õ‚ÿÿÿÿáCbDTable of ContentsEŸCbD< H€Œ€€†"€€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)BáC¤D1ï ¯‚?ÿÿÿÿ¤Ds€Romulus and Remus¡#bDEE~ Ì€N€€†"€ €‚€ë¯¢ï$€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚ÿ &¤DkE# €€€‚ÿÂOEE-Fs ¶€ €€ âé`ȵ‰âPF•h‰€‚€€‚€‚ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Shewolf_Statue') €†"€ ‰€‚€‚ÿThe Legend of Romulus and Remus(Traditional Date - 753 BC)Ž>kE»HP n€€€âl›m‰â%¨ü‰€‚€‚‡"€ âïD·[‰âêç0h‰€‚ÿAccording to an ancient legend, the powerful Greeks had come to the city of Troy (located near the west coast of modern Turkey) to wage a big war and killed almost everyone. A prince from Troy (Trojan prince) named Aeneas, ran away and escaped to the Mediterranean sea and found a ship and sailed to Italy. He landed at a city called Laurentum on the west coast of Italy. He made a friend with a man there named Latinus who was the king there and the Latins all around the area. They made a treaty together and Aeneas married the kings daughter Lavinia. ©{-FdK. *€÷€€‚âÅ@,‰€‚ÿAeneas' son Ascanius decided to build a new city and he named it Alba Longa. He was the king there and many kings came after him ruling for about 400 years. Afterward, the last king was attacked and overthrown, and his twin grandsons Romulus and Remus were placed next to the River Tiber and left to die. But something interesting happened, a she-wolf found them and took care of them. When the twins grew up they came back to the wonderful place by the river where they had almost died and they decided to build a new city right there on the spot so that others who were homeless like they had been might have a place to live. ß»HkN( €¿€€‚€‚ÿThey argued with each other over where the exact spot had been and so in the evening they decided to hold a sacred ceremony where they would watch for an omen (a sign from the gods) and let the gods decide. Early in the morning when the sun was coming up Remus looked up in the sky and saw 6 vultures flying by. But something interesting happened. While the sun was coming up he noticed that there were now 12 vultures. He told his brother all about it but they had a bad argument over what it may have meant and Romulus went into a rage and killed his brother Remus. He then went to the spot that he had chosen and started building the city. Once he had built the city he named it "Rome" after himself and became its first ruler.2ùdKO9 @€ó€€‚â&‘m‰€‚€‚€€‚ÿThe historian Livy wrote:"Remus, by way of Jeering his brother, jumped over the half-built walls of the new settlement, whereupon Romulus killed him in a fit of rage, adding the threat, "So perish whoever shall leap over my battlements."M#kN €* $€F€€ €‚€‚ÿ-Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 29 BCO €bDg?Os€( €~€€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com); €®€1øõ‚Êÿÿÿÿ®€k‰The Latins¿%s€m‚š S€€†"€ €‚€ëƒGÀ†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€â&‘m€‰€‚€‚ÿ "Go," he said, "and tell the Romans that by heaven's will my Rome shall be capital of the world. Let them learn to besoldiers. Let them know, and teach their children, that no power on earth can stand against Roman arms." -Livy, History I, xvi Ž%®€ûƒi  €K€€âF·[‰âïD·[‰âåòyy‰âšA‚s‰âé`ȵ‰ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Language_Map') ‰€‚€‚ÿIt was in Latium that an Indo-European group, the Latins, (ancestors of the Romans) migrated and settled near the Tiber River. Their first city, called Alba Longa, was built about 1000 BC. Their most important city, Rome, was founded in 753 BC by Romulus. (see Language Map)<m‚7„4 8€€€†"€ €‚€‚‚ÿï°ûƒ&…? L€a€€ â»Ò‰€‚€‚â|dʼn€‚€‚ÿThe Seven Hills They settled in an area known as the seven hills. Palentine Hill was one of the first places where villages were built. (see Latium and Geography):7„`…3 6€€€†"€€‚€‚ÿž;&…þˆc ”€w€€ €‚€‚â[ü—±‰ëø0`‚€‚â=‰âï–y‰â«ÇðR‰ëÙJ7‰€‚ÿThe Earliest Settlements in ItalyArchaeologists have found remains of human settlements evidences of peoples in Italy long before the Roman or Greek civilizations began. The earliest cultures date back to over 3000 BC who lived in villages and farms. Latin tribes from the south and the Sabines in the north settled here in small circular villages on the hilltops around the eighth century BC.. (see Invaders from the North)During the time period of 2000 -1000 BC there was a wave of Indo-European immigrants who had engulfed the area. These peoples included the Umbrians in the north, Oscans in the south, and the Latins in between them in the central plain called Latium (Lay-see-uhm). The most mysterious of these peoples were known as the Etruscans. (see Etruscan, Phoenician, and Greek Influences)mA`…k‰, (€‚€€‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Cþˆ®‰1ç?“…ÿÿÿÿ®‰^ÈRome's First KingsùIk‰§‹° .¡€€†"€€‚€ë•:†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚€‚†"€†"€†"€€‚ÿ "However lawless and tyrannical Tarquin may have been asmonarch in his own country, as a war leader he did finework. Indeed, his fame as a soldier might have equaled thatof his predecessors, had not his degeneracy in other thingsobscured its luster." -Livy, History I, xxxiii l#®‰ŽI `€G€€‚€ €‚€‚âé`ȵ‰â&‘m‰ëKñ£÷‰€‚ÿThe Seven KingsThe early history of Rome has always been an interesting mixture of heroic legend and fact. According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC. Romulus was Rome's first king and after him there were 6 more kings. The period traditionally lasted for 244 years (753-509 BC) and is known about through the historian Livy who compiled his Great History of Rome in a single narrative during the rule of Augustus, which indicates that he ascertained his information through various myths and legends. (see Rome's Early Kings)&§‹9Ž# €€€‚ÿ4ŽmŽ/ .€ €€†"€€‚ÿþÃ9ŽwÀ; D€‰€€‚‡"€€€€‚€‚ÿ Livy records that the kings were vitally important in the early growth of the state. He said that the people at this time were, "a rabble of vagrants, mostly runaways and refugees, unrestrained by the power of the throne, would no doubt have set sail on the stormy sea of democratic politics." He mainly tells the story of them groping thmŽwÀk‰eir way to political maturity when writing of the seven kings. Their names were (click on each name): ЋmŽGÂE X‚€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Romulus') €‰€‚ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Numa_Pompilius') €‰€‚È PI(`',`GLOS_Tullus_Hostilius') €‰€ €‚ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Ancus_Martius') €‰€‚È"PI(`',`GLOS_Tarquinius_Priscus') €‰€‚ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Servius_Tullus') €‰€‚È#PI(`',`GLOS_Tarquinius_Superbus') €‰€‚ÿRomulusNuma PompiliusTullus Hostilius Ancus MartiusTarquinius PriscusServius TullusTarquinius SuperbusµiwÀüÄL f€Ó€€‚âûg¹d‰€‚€‚€‚€‚â…²‰€‚€‚€‚ÿ(note: If you go to Rome today you can see parts of the Servian Wall which was once believed to have been built by Servius Tullius).Romulus was known as a warrior-king and the great builder of Rome's first army and of her first government.Numa Pompilius, Rome's second king, brought a new kind of peace to the land and founded the Roman religion.The kings had special advisors who were known as the "Senate" (Latin for "old men"). They were a council of elders from Rome's most prominent families. The citizens would assemble and vote on whatever decisions were made by the king and the "Senate."5ùGÂ1Ç< F€ó€€‚⊡֙‰€‚€‚â«ÇðR‰€‚ÿTheir religion greatly affected their decisions. In fact the king was also a chief priest to the gods and he chose more priests from among the Senate. They would gather together and perform religious ceremonies and they would also interpret whatever omens had been given.Around 500 B.C., the Etruscan tyranny provoked these Latin peoples to active opposition and then a revolt, the Etruscan king and his followers were driven into exile. Thus, there was ushered in a new era of Roman history.&üÄWÇ# €€€‚ÿšb1ÇñÇ8 @€Ä€€€‚€‚ëláõ‰€‚ÿClick here to read some quotes by Livy regarding each king:Livy About Rome's Early KingsmAWÇ^È, (€‚€€‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)> ñÇœÈ16 ÊŒÿÿÿÿœÈ™The EtruscansL¿^ÈèÉ è€‡€€†"€€‚€ë6ËÍL€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚ÿ "Some races wax and others wane, and in a short space the tribes of the living are changed, and like runners hand on the torch of life" - Lucretius(ÕœÈÌS t€«€€‚âð¼pÀ‰È!PI(`',`GLOS_Ancient_Italy_Map') ‰€‚ÿWhile Rome was at her beginning stages, and their kings were establishing the direction that the cities were going in, their were very powerful neighbors living in the north country at Etruria, and they were known as the Etruscans. They were a very wealthy and educated culture and had been expanding their territory from Etruria all through the western Mediterranean, building city-states and eventually they expanded down toward Rome. (see Ancient Italy Map)&èÉ6Ì# €€€‚ÿ^Ì”ÌW ~€€È$PI(`',`GLOS_Etruscan_Sarcophagus') €†"€‰€‚ÿÖ6̘Ï. *€­€€‚âYè ¬‰€‚ÿAround 575 BC. the Etruscans inhabited Rome and their kings (an aristocratic family known as the Tarquins) ruled Rome for the next 66 years. Rome had really benefited from their influence because they were so advanced. They taught the Romans their alphabet and how to build their houses with tile roofs. They also taught them many other building techniques, including the famous "arch" which had, later on, been attributed to Rome for its invention. The streets were laid out over the once mosquito infested swamps, and at the center of the city was the great square called the Forum, which became the seat of Roman government and law. The Tarquins also built temples and taught the Romans their many religious rituals.µ‰”ÌY, &€€€‚€‚€‚ÿRome had finally began to emerge as a highly civilized cul˜ÏY^Èture, and what was once a bunch of small villages with huts and straw roofs, now had become a great city with large walls and paved streets. In fact, Rome had gained fame very quickly for her tremendous building feats that far surpassed that of her teachers, the Etruscans and they became one of the wealthiest cities in Italy. X˜Ï±Q r€€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Circus_Maximus') €†"€‰€‚ÿEY2< F€‹€€‚âÞ‡\ ‰€‚€‚⊡֙‰€‚ÿThey built the Circus Maximus (an arena for games that held seats for thousands of spectators), the Temple of Jupiter (to honor their greatest god), and the Cloaca Maxima (a sewage system that is still being used today).Rome was prospering and advancing very fast until her 7th and last Roman king, Tarquin the Proud, had come to power. He was a very cruel dictator, and he despised the Senate as well as the voice of the people. In 509 BC. the people rebelled and overthrew him and cast him out. The people unanimously agreed "we will never again be ruled by a king."g?±™( €~€€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)C2Ü1•“…šÿÿÿÿÜÛALatium & Geography¹#™•– ú€O€€†"€€‚€ëkSŒQ€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€â&‘m€‰€‚ÿ "Go," he said, "and tell the Romans that by heaven's will my Rome shall be capital of the world. Let them learn to besoldiers. Let them know, and teach their children, that no power on earth can stand against Roman arms." -Livy, History I, xvi •NÜ*G \€€€‚âF·[€ ‰€‚€‚ëcKN‰€‚€‚ÿLatiumDuring the period of the first kings around 509 BC there were actually very many cities in Italy and Rome was just one of them. The Italian Peninsula is located right in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea. Rome is located right in the heart of Italy on a large plain known as Latium. (see The Geography of Italy)4•^/ .€ €€†"€ €‚ÿí¨*K E X€S€€‚‡"€âïD·[‰€‚€‚â«ÇðR‰€‚ÿ This area was a very fertile area with great weather and many places for farmers to settle and grow various crops such as wheat, grapes, and olives. There have been many discoveries made by archaeologists of people living back as far as 1100 BC who were farmers and herders just like most of their neighbors around the Mediterranean. The people of Latium were called Latins and they all spoke the same language. In the north were the Etruscan city-states, and in the south were the Greeks. Together the Etruscans and the Greeks traded with other cultures from all over the whole Mediterranean Sea. They were very rich and the area was perfect for their lifestyles. á^`4 6€Ã€€‚âåòyy‰âð¼pÀ‰€‚ÿRome was right located between them. Rome lay 12 miles inland from the sea on the Tiber River, the border between Latium and Etruria and the Latium plain was ideal for them as well. In fact the ancient Roman historian Livy who lived from 59 BC to 17 AD said some interesting things about Rome, that it was placed in the center of the world, and when he described the area he said that there was a good reason that men and the gods chose this spot. He went on to say that it was a very well protected area from any attackers because it was situated on seven hills and the famous Tiber River was very close by, around 15 miles, and if you went down the river it wouldn't take long to journey right into the big Mediterranean Sea. W+K ·, &€W€€‚€‚€‚ÿRome was truly an ideal location, being near the mouth of the Tiber where they could cross its narrow yet firm banks easily. Her steep hills and marshy valleys made each area very isolated and the whole area a hard place to attack. Flocks and herds could graze in the wooded slopes in peace. 4` @/ .€ €€†"€€‚ÿ· @™Ïš·ÛA5 8€5€€‚€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿItaly was indeed close to all their big neighbors, Spain in the west, Greece in the east, and Africa in the south. Over the centuries Rome expanded its borders all the way to each of these places believing that "the gods destined Rome to rule the world." They even gave the Mediterranean Sea a new name, "Mare Nostrum" which means "our sea."©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)G @"B1Ð ŒaŠ ÿÿÿÿ"B«LPolitical InstitutionsH¸ÛAjD î€y€€†"€€‚€ë%¨“€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€ €‚ÿ "When a commonwealth, after warding off many great dangers, has arrived at a high pitch of prosperity and undisputed power, it is evident that, by the lengthened continuance of great wealth within it, the manner of life of its citizens will become more extravagant, and that the rivalry for office, and in other spheres of activity, will become fiercer than it ought to be." -Polybius, Histories¦f"BF@ N€Í€€‚€‚€‚âš<¹‰âŠ¡Ö™‰€‚€‚ÿBecause the Romans began as a conquered people under the rule of the Etruscans, they created political institutions to help protect themselves from someone rising up as a dictator and taking over. When they finally became a free people they decided to give all the power to two groups: the Assembly and the Senate even though there were kings.4jDDF/ .€ €€†"€€‚ÿ”NFØHF Z€€€‚€ €‚€‚€‚€‚€ €‚€‚€‚ÿThe AssemblyThe Assembly consisted of all male citizens of military age. They would agree and approve on certain decisions and they could veto any important decision made concerning war, peace and justice. The SenateThe Senate was a council of elders who were chosen as members because of how important their family was. They were mainly very conservative, very privileged, very wealthy, and owned lots of land. They would choose who should be the next king, and they would protect the Law of Custom, in case of any danger from a king or a decision made by the assembly.lDFDLZ ‚€%€€‚â«ÇðR‰€‚€‚€ €‚€‚€‚€‚€ âË/=¢‰€‚€‚€‚ÿThis was the method of checks and balances that made up the Roman government when Rome first became free in 509 BC when the Etruscan kings were finally cast out for good.Democratic RomeSince 509 BC the Roman government was under the control of two consuls. By the middle of the 4th century BC one of those consuls had to be a plebeian (see The Republican Government). The ConsulsBy the third century the consuls had similar authority as the early kings except for the fact that they could only serve in office for one year. This would put a limit on the possibility of a dictatorship. In fact if one consul thought the other was getting too powerful he could veto the other consul's actions. We get our word "veto" from the Latin word which means "I forbid." g?ØH«L( €~€€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)DDLïL1Üš  ÿÿÿÿïLµEarly Roman Society|æ«LkN– ú€Õ€€†"€€‚€ë7 ¹€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€â&‘m€‰€‚ÿ "Brutus, the founder, made the people swear never to allow any man to be king in Rome. He promoted national unity and lessoned the friction between the patricians and the plebs" -Livy&ïL‘N# €€€‚ÿ[kNìNT x€€È!PI(`',`GLOS_Straw_Roofed_Huts') €†"€‰€‚ÿ7à‘N/W |€Á€€‚€ €‚€‚â€F(h€ ‰€â–YR€ ‰€â5Ä~€ ‰€€‚ÿThe Family The family was the most important part of Roman society. The main person in charge legally of the family was the pater or father. He even had the power of life or deatìN/«Lh within the family. If the matron, the woman of the house, was of a dignified social status, the power of the father was somewhat restrained. Originally called by the Latin title of paterfamilias, the father evolved into the patron of Roman Republican and early Imperial society.&ìNU# €€€‚ÿ_/´X €€€È%PI(`',`GLOS_man_and_wife_painting') €†"€‰€‚ÿ»iUo„R r€Ó€€‚€ €‚€‚€‚€‚€ â¶òd‰€‚€‚⊡֙‰€‚ÿClass Divisions In Rome there were various class divisions that were very stringent. Under the Etruscans, a new wealthy aristocratic class had come into Rome known as the patricians. The PatriciansThe patricians were great land-owners and of a noble Latin birth. Once the Etruscans were driven out the patricians declared Rome a republic (a community by which people elect their leaders). They served in the Senate and were very privileged. They controlled the offices within the army, and they governed the important events that happened within society such as the public religious ceremonies.= ´¬…2 2€€€‚â}뉀‚€‚ÿPatricians were people who belonged to one of the original 35 gens, or tribes. The people who were not of the Patrician class were the Plebeians. The important aspect of class was familial relation to the original tribes, and secondarily, property ownership.Wo„†P p€€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Farmer_Figure') €†"€‰€‚ÿw>¬…zˆ9 @€}€€‚€ €‚€‚âš<¹‰€‚ÿThe PlebeiansThere were also the Plebeians who made up the majority of Rome's inhabitants. Plebeians were a class of citizens who were usually non aristocratic farmers, artisans and shopkeepers, and some were wealthy. They did have rights, such as the right to serve in the Assembly and the right to vote, trade, hold property, and administer judicial self defense. They were not as privileged as the patricians and could never marry one. They could not hold a public office and could never receive entry into the Senate and there was no recorded bill of rights.&† ˆ# €€€‚ÿVzˆöˆO n€€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Slave_Mosaic') €†"€ ‰€‚ÿÜ— ˆÒ‹E X€/€€‚€ âä©Ý†‰â œ4›‰€‚€‚€ €€‚ÿThe Clients and the SlavesThe Clients were peasant farmers who rented land. They would follow a certain patron and perform political duties, including assassinations, and lying in court, if it would help further his patron's political career. In return, the client often received money, a job, or an invitation to dinner at the patron's house. A dinner invitation may not seem like much to us today, but in Roman times it could mean a great place in society if he appeared at the right dinner parties. His prestige in society would be much more enhanced if he were seen by the rich and famous at only one dinner party hosted by a powerful patron. ã öˆµC T€A€€‚€‚€‚€ €€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿThis patron-client relationship led to many interesting situations in ancient Rome. Sometimes candidates for various government magistracies would travel around Rome with several hundred or even a few thousand of their clients. Lastly were the Slaves, who had no freedom or rights whatsoever unless it was bestowed upon them by their master.©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)AÒ‹ö1raŠ„ ÿÿÿÿö3ÅReligion of Rome:µ0Ž& €(€€ €‚ÿReligion of Rome ÄöIÀI `€‰€€‚€‚€‚€ €‚€‚€‚€‚âµïf‰€‚ÿReligion is what really the adhesive that bonded all classes. It was not about priestly descent in early Roman religion but about civic activities, though there were specially devoted people and holy men, such as the haruspices who inspected the animal sacrifices, and the augurs who interpreted omens. Early GodsThe most poplar deities that prevailed within the farms and houses 0ŽIÀµof the people were:Janus (The spirit of the doorway)| 0ŽÅÂ\ †€A€â-fi€‰€‚âÞ%릀‰€‚âSø€‰€‚âÉX‹€‰€‚€‚€‚ÿVesta (The spirit of the hearth)The Penates (The guardians of household stores)The Lares (The guardians of family property)The Genius (The guardian angel or spirit)The Romans were very materialistic in their religious devotion. They would make bargains with the gods and devote themselves wholeheartedly to their contract. They were so serious about this that there were certain laws against breaking one's contract with a god. There was also the taboo that would follow the promise-breaker of his bargain with his god.¯IÀÌÄX ~€_€€‚€ €‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€‚€‚ÿLater GodsLater during the time of the monarchy certain gods became predominant such as:Jupiter (The sky-god and chief over all)Juno (Jupiter's wife and protector of matrons)Minerva (The diety of the artisans)Mars (the god of war)Though the religious devotion of early Rome was mainly within the household, it wasn't long before the worship of the gods became cultic and was performed within the temples.g?ÅÂ3Å( €~€€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)EÌÄxÅ1á  ë‹ ÿÿÿÿxÅÏThe Fifth Century BCˆ3ÅÆ è€€€†"€!€‚€ëëë.~€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚ÿ "It is through the ways of old and through the heroes of old that Rome stands fast." -Ennius0xŽÇ( €€€‚€‚ÿRome had believed in early times that she was destined to rule the world even though there were many hostile peoples around her. She fought hard and survived. By the sixth century Rome had thrown out her last king and the Republic was founded around 510 BC. 4ÆñÇ/ .€ €€†"€"€‚ÿZø½ÇKËb ’€ñ€€‚€ €‚€‚€‚€‚€ â(j‰€‚€‚âie‰âªá'¶‰ëFÐôf‰€‚ÿFrom City-State to Nation-StateFor the next two and a half centuries the small city-state of Rome expanded its boundaries gradually until it ruled the entire Italian peninsula. This protected them from many of their hostile neighbors.The Latin LeagueThe power of the Etruscans was diminishing yet they had an extremely large army of Italian tribes prepared for war along with two other powerful neighboring armies, the great mountain tribe armies of the Aequi, and the Volsci. Rome was in great danger because of them. Rome was also in danger because the Latin cities had formed a league to threaten the newly formed republic in Rome and she had to defend herself against this alliance for many years. (see The Latin League and Rome)¹qñÇÎH ^€ã€€‚âév¡Õ‰€‚€‚â6ꕉâS8"{‰âŸH‹ó‰€‚ÿRome, who had been mainly an army of farmers defending their land, decided to regroup and organize and they finally won a tremendous victory at Lake Regillus in 486 BC and they became the dominant partner in the league. They all became allies so that they could defend themselves against the armies of the Etruscans, the Aequi, and the Volsci. Meanwhile the northern Sabellians were invading the lands of the Aequi, and the Volsci which drove them down into Italy to attack Rome. Two great Roman leaders defeated them one named Coriolanus defeated the Aequi and another named Cincinnatus defeated the Volsci.ÚKËÏ6 :€µ€€‚€‚€‚‚€‚‚€‚ÿAfter this Rome made more attacks on the Etruscans and doubled her territory which eventually brought them to a place as leader of the Latin League.©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)FÎZÏ1?„€ ÿÿÿÿZÏ@The Fourth Century BC=¬Ï£‘ ð€a€€†"€#€‚€ëži€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€ €‚€ ‚ÿ ZÏ£Ï "Every single step the Celts took...being commended to them by the heat of passion than by cool calculation ---PolybiusbZÏH ^€5€€â(j‰âF·[‰€‚€ëàÛÓω€‚€‚ÿThe fourth century started out as a terrible time for the Romans and yet by the end of the century they had defeated the combined armies of the Latin League and Rome became the capital of all of Latium and her armies defended its borders. (see also The Roman Legions)ì\£ñ €È$PI(`',`GLOS_Barbarians_and_Heads') €†"€$‰€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚ÿSome of these barbarian tribes wouldcut off the heads of their enemies and place them around their neck to ward off evil spirits since they believed that the soul dwelt within the head even after death. They would even throw a detached head at their enemy in order to terrify the enemy and also ward off evil spirits.Ñ I `€£€€‚€ â®ÎRf‰€‚€‚â&‘m‰ëÚÚ͉€‚ÿThe GaulsAround 387 BC a barbarous tribe in the north part of Europe known as the Gauls defeated the Romans at the River Allia and invaded Italy and sacked Rome. According to the historian Livy, most of the people had fled Rome in terror. Only a handful of soldiers and some Roman senators had remained and the Gauls provoked the senators to defend themselves and when they did the Gauls brutally slaughtered them. (see Barbarian Wars and the Gauls)Qñ\ J b€€€‚€‚€‚âyzò€ ‰€€‚€‚âsé5‰€‚ÿAfter the destruction only the Capitoline Hill had held her ground and the Gauls decided to attack at night secretly but some Geese made their presence known and after some bribery the Gauls finally left. Most of the Latin cities were very happy to see Rome overthrown. Camillius With their city destroyed a leader named Camillius attempted to rebuild Rome and raise strong walls around her seven hills. Around 380 BC he organized what was left of the army and introduced new tactics and weapons made of iron. He even developed new laws regarding Roman citizenship. They began to regain their lost territory and, with the help of the Samnites, a tribe from central Italy, they conquered the area again and this made them the most powerful people in Latium.B ž . ,€(€€‚€ €‚€ ‚ÿThe Samnites4\ Ò / .€ €€†"€%€‚ÿò¬ž Ä F Z€Y€€‚âAÖ8m‰â ®3‰€‚€‚ë¡î•è‰€‚ÿRome was determined to defend herself against future attack from the Gauls, and by 330 BC the Samnites became a big threat and had been attacking Campania. Naples, a city in southern Italy, had pleaded with Rome for help against the Samnites. When Appius Claudius heard of this he strengthened the army and built a navy and prepared for war.Rome went to war against the Samnites along with their allies the Gauls and the Etruscans. After a series of wars lasting 40 years Rome finally defeated the Samnites and this made Rome a bigger threat than ever to the Latin League and they united against her for war and were crushed. (see The Roman Conquest of Southern Italy)b!Ò &A P€C€€‚€‚€‚€ â_“^à‰€‚€‚€‚ÿRome now became the capital of all of Latium and was requiring citizenship to all of the surrounding colonies under her dominion. Rome had won many strategic victories and soon dominated northern and central Italy.The Appian WayAppius Claudius constructed the first of Rome's great military highways called The Appian Way. It was the first strand of what was to become a great web of paved highways throughout the whole Mediterranean world. There was nothing like it and without it Rome could not have won its tremendous empire.&Ä L# €€€‚ÿT& M j€€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Appian_Way') €†"€&‰€‚ÿmAL@, (€‚€€‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-hi @Ïstory.com)E ^@1ë‹èŠÿÿÿÿ^@4NThe Third Century BCÇ6@%B‘ ð€u€€†"€'€‚€ëºªø€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚€ ‚ÿ "Come, help us, O lares. Let neither blight nor ruin hasten upon the people. Be satiated , fierce Mars, leap the threshold, stay the scourge. Summon in turn the gods of the harvest. Come, help us, O Mars. Triumph, triumph, triumph, triumph, triumph!" -Ancient Hymná^@8D2 2€Ã€€‚ë'Ãmû‰€‚ÿBy the turn of the third century Rome had a powerful army, a new navy, and a great military highway, with strong garrisons of soldiers at strategic borders. Rome was well organized in her efforts to maintain a unity within her territory. The statesmen would discourage internal strife by providing generous land grants to the army, as well as the spoils of war and democratic rights. They also forced their victims to join their armies. (see More Conquests of Central Italy)&%B^D# €€€‚ÿ48D’D/ .€ €€†"€(€‚ÿ;Ó^DÍGh ž€§€€‚€ âˆÜë+‰€‚€‚âsé5‰ëÎbBZ‰€‚€‚€ €‚€‚âQD?£‰â`!L ‰€‚ÿThe Battle of SentiumThe Samnites and all of her allies were severely defeated at the Battle of Sentium in 296 BC. Many of Rome's enemies were being weakened by continually fighting each other. Now with Rome's effective policies for preserving unity they were destined to succeed. Rome was prepared to conquer all of Italy. (see Roman Military Organization)Rome Conquers All Italy In the south of Italy there were mainly Greek cities. In 282 BC Thurii, A Greek city in the south had asked Rome for help from the Lucanians, allies of the Samnites. Rome came to their aid and soon many other cities had also called upon Rome for assistance. Soon the Greeks resented this and war was inevitable. £’DÙJi  €I€€‚ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Pyrrhus_Bust') €‡"€)‰€⢺©‰â=z؉â}b!‰€‚ÿ One Greek city, Tarentum, fired up a major quarrel with a Roman delegation, and so they called upon King Pyrrhus of Epirus (in Greece) to come to their aid since they were mainly a commercial city and not able to match armies with Rome. He came with full force and brought his fearful elephant cavalry along with 20,000 soldiers and barely won a brutal victory at Heraclea in 280 BC. Pyrrhus had won the victory but at the expense of a major part of his army. He said, "If we win one more victory against the Romans we shall be totally ruined." This is where the term "Pyyhric Victory" originated where the winner suffers more loss than that which he gained.&ÍGÿJ# €€€‚ÿ•ÙJ”K‡ Þ€ €È#PI(`',`GLOS_Elephant_Copper_Bar') €†"€*‰€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Pig_Copper_Bar') €†"€+‰€‚ÿ 9ûÿJÍM> J€÷€€‚âô‚ȉâb¹‡h‰ë**.’‰€‚ÿRome was not discouraged. They called upon their powerful allies from Carthage, which was located at the top of North Africa on the Mediterranean Sea. Together they defeated Pyrrhus's army at the Battle of Beneventum and drove Pyrrhus out of Italy in 276 BC and four years later Tarentum surrendered along with the rest of southern Italy. By 264 BC Rome occupied Italy from the Toe River to the Po River and was considered a major power in the Mediterranean. (see The Conquests of Southern Italy)g?”K4N( €~€€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)BÍMvN1B €“ÿÿÿÿvNõˆRoman CitizenshipWÊ4NÍO 耀€†"€,€‚€ëæåá{€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚ÿ "Remember, Roman, to guide the nations with authority. Let these be your arts: impose the laws of peace, And spare the humbled and lay low the proud." -Vergilð¾vNÉ€2 2€}€€‚âÀ‹"ž‰€‚€‚ÿÍOÉ€4NCitizenship was extremely important in Rome's attempt to preserve her unity. When Rome conquered a city they would offer it alliance and would write up various terms of the treaty. 4ÍOý€/ .€ €€†"€-€‚ÿ`ùÉ€]ƒg œ€ó€€‚€ €‚€‚â·-$ž‰âïoÊà‰â+º‰âÿ'H‰€‚€‚€ €€‚€‚€ €€‚ÿ4 Classes of CitizenshipWhen Rome conquered a city the defeated people would fall into one of four classes. Citizens, Municipia, Latin Allies, and Italian Allies. Other areas maintained their domestic independence but Rome dictated their foreign policies.Citizens had full rights and full privileges.Municipia received Roman citizenship without the right to vote. They were allowed a local self-government and the rights of trade. They also served in the army and paid taxes.Àý€r…U x€€€‚€ €€‚€‚€ €€‚€‚€ €‚€‚€ €€‚ÿLatin Allies had no citizenship but were allowed the rights of trade, they also equipped Rome with foreign legions and were self-governed.Italian Allies were Roman protectorates. They sent troop levies to Rome, and they shared in the spoils of war.Advantages and Disadvantages For the Italian TribesThere were many advantages for the Italians being under the protection of Rome even though they had lost their independence: JÖ]ƒ¼‡t ¶€­€€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€‚€ €€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚ÿa) The Pax Romana (Roman peace), b) Protection from many foreigners and multiple tribal wars ceasing, c) Partial freedom and the possibility of full citizenship, d) A better economye) The use of Rome's architecture: (bridges, aqueducts, roads, etc.)f) Sharing in the glory of RomeThe disadvantages were:a) Roman taxesb) Required military servicec) Only partial freedomd) The eventual loss of any former identity, culture or language9þr…õˆ; D€ý€€‚ëBö‰€‚€‚‚€‚ÿGradually the Latin language and the Roman way of life permeated the entire Italian Peninsula and Rome was becoming quickly unified as they had hoped. (see Rome's Methods of Domination)©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)J¼‡?‰1{èŠÿÿÿÿ?‰ÆThe Republican Government’üõˆÑŠ– ú€€€†"€.€‚€ë_¸j€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€â&‘m€‰€‚ÿ "Now we trace the history in peace and war, of a free nation, governed by annually elected officers of state, and subject not to the caprice of individual men, but to the overriding authority of law" -Livy­`?‰~ŒM h€Á€€‚€ €‚€‚â«ÇðR‰â¶òd‰ëWD~†‰€‚€‚ÿThe Roman RepublicIn 509 BC. the Romans rebelled against their Etruscan overlords replacing kingship with a republic (A country governed by the elected representatives of its people) and the Patricians organized the government of the republic into an executive branch and legislative branch. (see Rome's Development of a Constitution)aÑŠߌZ „€€È'PI(`',`GLOS_Local_Magistrate_Statue') €†"€/‰€‚ÿ^~Œ=? L€?€€‚€âË/=¢‰€‚€‚⊡֙‰€‚ÿThe ConsulsTwo patrician officials known as the consuls (because they had to consult each other before acting), were the chief executive officers and ran the cities daily affairs. They were elected to serve in office for one year terms. Each consul could veto (Latin word meaning "to forbid") the others decisions. The consuls maintained order among the executive officials (praetors, judges, censors, tax collectors, etc.). They presided over the Senate and were commander in chief during wartime. They were also supreme judges.+ÙߌtÂR r€³€€‚€â° õT‰€‚€‚€‚€‚€€‚€‚âš<¹‰€‚ÿThe DictatorWhen Rome was in a time of crisis they would temporarily appoint a dictator (one whose word =tÂõˆwas law), and only he could override the decision made by the consuls. The SenateThe Senate were also a body of patricians, 300 citizens from the wealthiest families of Rome.They also maintained the treasury as well as foreign policy and they served for life. They outweighed the Assembly of Centuries and advised the consuls, proposed laws, and approved new construction of roads, temples and military defenses. They were supposedly an advisory body but in actuality they were the center of all policy decisions concerning foreign affairs, military matters, finances, public land, and state religion. 6õ=ªÅA P€ë€€‚âŸKæ&€ ‰€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚ÿChecks and BalancesThe consuls were in charge of government and also of the army. The 300 citizen Senate advised them at all times. In the history of the Roman Republic the Senate was always the most powerful group. Only the Assembly could approve or disapprove of one of their laws and only the assembly elected Candidates for the office of consul. There was always a basic concept of checks and balances.The modern US constitution is based on these basic concepts of checks and balances within the ancient government of the Roman Republic. Whether it be the President, the Congress, or the courts, none can dominate the government. Each branch has a way to check the actions of the other and the actions of each branch balance the others. ZïtÂÈk ¤€ß€€‚€ âéš{‰€‚€‚€‚€‚âÇŵ쀉€‚€‚€‚€‚âœD¯€‰€‚€‚€‚ÿThe Middle Class and PoorThe middle class and poor were represented in 2 assemblies:The Assembly of CenturiesThere was also a body of patricians within the legislative branch known as the Assembly of Centuries (named for a military formation of 100 men "centum") and these were elected into office. They could declare war.The Assembly of Tribes A legislative assembly of elected officials called tribunes and questors who passed laws and conducted minor trials.HâªÅLÊf š€Å€€‚€â)PJ‰€‚€‚€‚€‚âÕºöV€‰âïzû‰€‚€‚€‚€‚âúßm_‰€‚ÿThe CensorsThere were also 2 Censors (ex-consuls) who took the census, assessed the taxes, named senators, etc. Aediles and Quaestors4 Aediles served as mayors of the city and 8 Quaestors acted as treasurers.The plebeians felt that they did not have any real power in the new republic and in 494 BC they went on strike, threatening to leave the army and start a new republic of their own. The patricians then agreed to hear the voice of the Tribunes. ÏÈ_ÌD V€Ÿ€€‚€€‚€‚â}뉀‚€‚€€‚ÿThe TribunesThe 10 Tribunes, elected by the Plebeians, protected the rights of the people from the decisions made by the senate. They had power to veto any government decision. The Plebeians' demanded that the patricians would hear the tribunes and because of the fear of losing their military and labor forces the patricians agreed. They became so protected that anyone injuring a Tribune could be put to death.The Judiciary Branch of Governmenth-LÊÇÎ; D€[€€‚€‚€‚€ €‚€‚€‚ÿThe judiciary branch of government were the 6 Praetors (elected for 2 years) who were the high judges.The 12 Tables of LawThe Plebeians still felt inferior because they really never knew exactly what the laws were. The laws had never been put into writing and were only known by the patricians. The Plebeians insisted that the government write down the laws. Finally in 451 BC the patricians agreed to engrave the laws on 12 bronze tablets and to set them in the Forum for all to see. These 12 Tables became the basis for all future Roman law.ó´_ÌÆ? L€i€€‚ëY{`Y‰€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿThe Plebeians had soon won the right to serve in some public offices and in 287 BC they won a great victory, they were given the right to make laws for the republic in the Assembly of Tribes. Rome was close to becoming a true democracy. But by the ÇÎÆõˆ2nd Cent. BC. more power was in the hands of the senate and they were becoming corrupt. (see Moving Toward Democracy)©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)LÇÎ1¨ “öÿÿÿÿn The Punic Wars (264-146 BC)+Æ=ž %€€†"€0€‚€ëÓJØ€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚€‚†"€1€‚ÿ "It is through the ways of old and through the heroes of old that Rome stands fast." -Ennius‘W‰ à€#€€‚€ âC_@h‰€È!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') ‰€‚€‚âô‚ȉ€‚€‚€€€‚€€€‚€€€‚ÿThe Punic Wars (264-146 BC) Click to See MAPFor the next 120 years Rome's attention would be dominated by Carthage, the biggest competitor over the trade routes around the Mediterranean, especially the western side, and history records their conflicts in a series of three wars:The First Punic War 264-241 BCThe Second Punic War 218-201 BCThe Third Punic War 149-146 BC&=}# €€€‚ÿ\WÙU z€€È"PI(`',`GLOS_War_Gallery_Relief') €†"€2‰€‚ÿ]"}6; D€E€€‚€ €‚€‚€‚€‚€‚ÿCarthageCarthage was located at the northern tip of Africa right across the Sea to the south of Sicily. It was founded in 814 BC by the Phoenicians, a middle eastern people and they dominated the western Mediterranean for some three centuries.. Their massive navy closely policed all of the trade in the Mediterranean and made it into a "closed sea." Rome saw all of this as a threat to their economy and security. The boundaries of Carthage also extended into Italy and they also engulfed all of the areas along the coast of North Africa from Libya to Gibraltar, setting up trading posts all along and in the Mediterranean islands, especially Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. In fact Carthage was so wealthy from her trade that she could hire defensive mercenaries to help maintain order. &Ù\# €€€‚ÿ46/ .€ €€†"€3€‚ÿÞ\n A P€;€€‚â¤mu‰ë@ü‰€‚€‚‚€‚ÿWhen Rome conquered southern Italy they became a threat to Carthage and all policies of friendship were discontinued. Carthage moved to take over the important Straits of Messina in Italy and Rome took action and this marked the beginning of the Punic Wars (Latin "bella Punica), after the word "Phoenician" in Latin. (see Rome and Carthage) ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)D² 1S ǃÿÿÿÿ² ]FThe First Punic WarWÊn   耀€†"€4€‚€ëšu=~€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚ÿ "Remember, Roman, to guide the nations with authority. Let these be your arts: impose the laws of peace, And spare the humbled and lay low the proud." -VergilOâ² Xm ¨€Å€€‚€ âC_@h‰€È!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') ‰€‚€‚âô‚ȉâ¤mu‰€‚ÿThe First Punic War (264-241 BC) Click to See MAPWhen Carthage moved into Messina in northern Sicily the local Greek cities under Rome's protection cried out to Rome for help. Rome sent an army to Sicily and the wars began. Carthage was larger and wealthier than Rome yet Rome was superior in its manpower and its loyal citizenry. The biggest threat to Rome was not in the land battles but in the Sea battles because of Carthage's huge navy and her naval skills.& ~# €€€‚ÿPXÎI b€€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Corvus') €†"€5‰€‚ÿÒ~¬AE X€€€‚€ €‚€‚âö³€ ‰€€ €€‚ÿRome's Naval StrategyRome, being very inferior and inexperienced in sea battles had to think quickly. After finding an abandoned Carthaginian warship they built 100 duplicates in 60 days. They soon built over 200 warships and won άAn huge victories at sea. They also developed a strategy where they invented a large hook like drawbridge called the Corvus or Raven and would thrust it out and catch a hold of the enemy ship which would then allow 120 soldiers to march onto the vessel. This tactic would turn their naval battle into a land battle and it proved successful for Rome , who had won every major sea battle of the first Punic War. &ÎÒA# €€€‚ÿ`¬A2BY ‚€€È&PI(`',`GLOS_Infantry_Warship_Mural') €†"€6‰€‚ÿÉ™ÒAûD0 .€3€€‚€‚€‚€‚ÿAfter winning many victories the Romans lost 200 of their ships and 100,000 men to very violent storms off Camarina in 255 BC. They soon regrouped and defeated Carthage in 241 BC with a third fleet of warships. It took approximately 20 years for the Romans to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily. This would mark Rome's first overseas territory. Not very long after the Romans took the islands of Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage in order to have more control over the sea. After 23 years Carthage sued for peace and a peace treaty was signed. The Carthaginians had to pay a large sum of money known as an "indemnity" to Rome for the costs of the war. b#2B]F? L€G€€‚ë–:€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿThe Romans soon dominated the Mediterranean Sea and built a merchant fleet. All the trade and customs would be monitored by Rome and they patrolled the sea continually against Pirates. (see Illyrian and Gallic Invasions)©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)EûD¢F1FöLÿÿÿÿ¢F¯‡The Second Punic Waruè]FH è€Ù€€†"€7€‚€ëx _0€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚ÿ Nothing seems to me a nobler ambition than to be able to hold by you eloquence the minds of men, to captivate their wills, to move them to and fro in whatever direction you please." -Ciceroïn¢FJ ЀÝ€€‚€ âC_@h‰€È!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') ‰€‚€‚â €‰âô‚ȉë ¡£N‰â®ÎRf‰€‚€‚ÿThe Second Punic War (218-201 BC) Click to See MAPThe second Punic War was dominated by one man, Hannibal of Carthage, who had dedicated himself at the age of 9 to the total destruction of Rome (see Hannibal and Hamilcar). He invented an ingenious plan while Rome was off fighting the Gauls by land and the Illyrian (Greek) pirates on sea. WH]JP p€€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Hannibal_Coin') €†"€8‰€‚ÿ°sJ L= H€ç€€‚€ €‚€‚âÕk¼ ‰€‚€‚ÿHannibal's PlanCarthage was not going to give up easily. A determined leader of Carthage, Hamilcar Barca directed his attention to Spain where they could get control over the mineral resources there and create an army from the people there that would match the Roman legions. His son Hannibal was committed to ruin Rome and created a military base in Spain.W]JdLP p€€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Elephant_Coin') €†"€9‰€‚ÿc LóM, &€Ç€€‚€‚€‚ÿHannibal devised an ingenious plan. His intention was to make a surprise attack upon Italy herself. He led his new army consisting of 60,000 men, 6,000 horses and 37 war elephants over the River Rhone (with his elephants on rafts), then across the Pyrenees mountains, then through southern Gaul and they finally arrived at the Alps after 5 months. 4dL'N/ .€ €€†"€:€‚ÿ ¨óM<a €Q€€‚âõš[í‰ët©©4‰â&‘m‰ë_¯åS‰€‚€‚€ €‚€‚âÊ•Ó ‰€‚ÿOnly 1/2 of his army had survived. The Greek historian Polybius described the scene. (see Polybius and Hannibal). Hannibal finally arrived in Italy and went a severe rampage against the Romans. The Roman historian Livy describes Hannibal's leadership. (see Livy and Hannibal)Hannibal's Military GeniusHannibal's military brilliance was unsurpassed and he sk'N<]Fillfully maneuvered his armies along with strategic use of his elephants and he demoralized the Romans when they came to stop him at Lake Trasimene and Cannae. Hannibal trapped the Roman legions between the hills and the lake at Trasimene forcing them back into the water where many of them drowned.O'N‹ƒ0 .€?€€‚€‚€‚€‚ÿThe worst defeat for Rome was at Cannae (216 BC) where Hannibal surrounded the entire Roman army and killed 50,000 men while only losing 6,000 of his own soldiers. This proved to be Rome's worst military disaster. Hannibal's manpower was great, but they were not large enough nor did they have enough equipment to invade the city of Rome or maintain a long siege. Hannibal remained undefeated for 12 years and his army went anywhere they wanted in Italy and ravaged the countryside for 4 more years when he was called back to Africa. å<©…9 @€Ë€€‚€ €‚€‚â§æ¡m‰€‚ÿHannibal is DefeatedRome could not defeat Hannibal in Italy so she retaliated by conquering Spain and then attacking Carthage. Under the leadership of Cornelius Scipio Africanus a Roman army sailed to Africa and attacked Carthage. Hannibal was recalled to Africa in 203 BC to defend his homeland and he was defeated by Scipio in 202 BC at Zama Regia, 80 miles southwest of Carthage. This was Hannibal's first defeat. He escaped to Greece but for Carthage the war was lost. &‹ƒÏ…# €€€‚ÿo©…>†U z€6€ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Scipio_Bust') €†"€;‰€‚€ €‚ÿScipio Africanusq*Ï…¯‡G \€U€€‚€‚€‚ëàwô‰€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿCarthage surrendered and gave up her fleet and all her overseas territory, including the Spanish colonies, and paid another large indemnity.Now Rome was clearly the master of the Mediterranean Sea. (see Hannibal and Scipio)©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)D>†ó‡1Áǃ€ÿÿÿÿó‡\ÀThe Third Punic WarŽ¯‡Š è€%€€†"€<€‚€ëºªø€†"€‰€ëv ?N€†"€‰€ëd½8€†"€‰€‚€‚€€€‚ÿ "The fall and ruin of the world will soon take place, but it seems that nothing of the kind is to be feared as long as the city of Rome still stands intact. But when the capital of the world has fallen . . . who can doubt that the end will have come for the affairs of men and for the whole world? It is that city which sustains all things." -Lactantius&ó‡4Š# €€€ ‚ÿ³HŠç‹k ¤€‘€€‚€ âC_@h‰€È!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') ‰€‚€‚âô‚ȉ€‚€‚ÿThe Third Punic War (149-146 BC) Click to See MAPIn 149 BC Rome decided to end things with Carthage once and for all. As Carthage was gaining her wealth back through trade in olives and wine Rome could not forget how desperate had been her struggles for victory and they sent an army to destroy her forever.44ŠŒ/ .€ €€†"€=€‚ÿxEç‹“Ž3 4€‹€€‚€ €‚€‚€‚ÿCarthage Destroyed The third Punic War ended with the destruction of Carthage. When Carthage defended herself against the aggressions of the Numidians of North Africa, Rome declared that she had violated her treaty arrangements and after a three-year siege upon Carthage it finally fell (146 BC). The Romans plowed through and leveled everything including houses and walls. Then they sowed salt on the fields (to guarantee that nothing would ever grow there again) and 50,000 people were sold into slavery. Thus Rome made certain that she would have no rival in the West.½‹ŒP2 2€€€‚â\Fjq‰€‚€‚ÿThe territory was annexed and became the first of Rome's provinces in the province of Africa. Rome's territory becomes tremendous.4“Ž„/ .€ €€†"€>€‚ÿÌ…P\ÀG \€ €€‚€€‚€‚€‚€‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚€‚‚€‚ÿ[NEXT]Rome: From the Early Empire to Tiberias „\À¯‡Caesar©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com); „—À1pLú„ÿÿÿÿ—ÀÌÆRead FirstM\À&ÁB T€œ€€†"€?€‚€‚€‚€‚€€‚ÿThank you for downloading BKA #40a The History of Rome - Part Iæ—À8Â, &€Í€€‚€‚€‚ÿThere is no charge for viewing this program although if you find it useful and decide to keep it the registration fee is $7.95. By registering you will help make it possible for me to produce many more programs as this one.º&ÁòÃ- (€€a€€€‚ÿThis program contains part one of a four part series spanning Roman history from 1000 BC to 400 AD. These programs include a general overview of Roman history with maps, timelines, photos, illustrations and a glossary. They will assist the student of Biblical history in understanding the Roman era, with an emphasis on God working in this time period, as well as the triumph of Christianity.!¸8ÂÆi  €q€€‚€‚€‚€€‚€€‚€‚€‚€€‚€€‚€€‚€‚€€‚€€‚ÿInstructions are very self explanatory. Information is easily accessible and searchable. My thanks to my friend Georgina for her artwork and support. You can visit my webstore at: http://www.bible-history.com/store Or you can send a check through mail:Rusty Russell28362 Laura La Plante Dr.Agoura Hills, CA 91301If you have any questions or comments please feel free to email me at: rusty@bible-history.com¹òÃÌÆ8 >€€€‚€‚€€‚€‚‚€‚ÿor you can visit my website at:http://www.bible-history.com©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)= Æ Ç1ö*€ ÿÿÿÿ Çe€Bibliography:ÌÆCÇ3 6€€€†"€@€‚€‚ÿ … ÇNɆ Ú€ €€ €‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚ÿA dictionary of the Roman Empireby Bunson, MatthewPublished by Oxford University Press,1995An ancient Rome chronology, 264-27 B.C.by Matz, DavidPublished by McFarland & Co.,c1997Ancient Romansby Starr, Chester G.Published by OXFORD UNIV PRESS Ancient Romansby Vickers, MichaelPublished by SCHWARTZ, ARTHUR & CO Ancient Romeby Davison, Michael›CÇaËx ¾€7€€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚ÿPublished by Abbeville Press,c1980Ancient Romeby Payne, RobertPublished by MCGRAW-HILL INC Ancient Rome :an introductory historyby Bement, LelandPublished by University of Oklahoma Press,c1998Ancient Rome :history of a civilization that ruled the worldby Liberati, Anna MariaPublished by Stewart, Tabori & Chang,[1996] Ancient Rome An Introductory Historyby Zoch, Paul A‡NÉsÍ‹ 䀀€ €‚€ ‚âð¼pÀ‰€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚â·-$ž‰€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚ÿPublished by UNIV OF OK PRESS Art Of Etruria & Early Romeby Mansuelli, G APublished by GREYSTONE PRESS Building Of Eternal Romeby Rand, Edward KennardPublished by HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRCitizens of Romeby Goodenough, SimonPublished by Crown Publishers,1979Civilization before Greece and Romeby Saggs, H W FPublished by Yale University Press,1989›aˆÏx ¾€7€€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚ÿCivilization of the ancient Mediterranean :Greece and Romeby Grant, MichaelPublished by Scribner's,c1988Classical mythology :the ancient myths and legends of Greece and Romeby Cotterell, ArthurPublished by Lorenz Books,c1999Classical Romeby Clare, JohnPublished by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1993Daily Life In Ancient Romeby Carcopino, JeromePublished by YALE UNIV PRESS †sÍ–~ Ê€ €€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚âC_@h‰€‚€ €‚€ €†Ï–ÌÆ‚ÿEducation In Ancient Rome From The Elderby Bonner, Stanley FredPublished by UNIV OF CA PRESSEmergence Of Rome As Ruler Of The Westerby Starr, Chester G.Published by CORNELL UNIV PRESS Everyday life in ancient Romeby Casson, LionelPublished by The Johns Hopkins University Press,c1998First Punic Warby Lazenby, JohnPublished by STANFORD UNIV PRESS µ†ÏŸT v€k€€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚ÿGreece & Rome Builders Of Our Worldby National GeographicPublished by NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Greece and Rome at warby Connolly, PeterPublished by Greenhill Books ;Mechanicsburg, PA :Stackpole Books,c1998Greek and Roman naval warfare;a study of strategy, tactics, and ship design from Salamis 480 B.C. to Actium 31 B.C. by Rodgers, William Led Published by Annapolis, Md.,United States Naval Institute[c1964] ”–ªw ¼€)€€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚â €‰€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚ÿHandbook to life in ancient Romeby Adkins, LesleyPublished by Oxford University Press,1998, c1994Hannibal :enemy of Romeby Cottrell, LeonardPublished by Da Capo Press,1992Hannibal's war :a military history of the Second Punic Warby Lazenby, J FPublished by University of Oklahoma Press,1998Hannibal's war with Rome :his armies and campaigns 216 BCby Wise, Terrence †Ÿ·‡ Ü€ €€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚ÿPublished by Osprey,1999Hellenism & The Rise Of Romeby Grimal, PierrePublished by DELACORTE PRESS History Of Liberty Pt 1 Ancient Romansby Eliot, SamuelPublished by LITTLE BROWN > & COMPANY History Of Romeby Grant, MichaelPublished by SIMON & SCHUSTERHistory Of Romeby Le Glay, MarcelPublished by AIDC History Of The Roman World 753 To 146 Bc’ªÕ Œ æ€%€€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚â&‘m‰€‚€ €‚€ €‚ÿby Scullard, H HPublished by METHUEN UK In search of ancient Romeby Moatti, ClaudePublished by Abrams,1993Law & Life Of Romeby Crook, JohnPublished by CORNELL UNIV+PRESS Life & Literature In The Roman Republicby Frank, TenneyPublished by UNIV OF CA PRESSLivy Hannibal The Scourge Of Romeby Lake, E./ Porter, F.Published by FOCUS PUBLISHING R PULLINS CO …·à † Ú€ €€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚âõš[퉀‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚ÿMarvels Of Ancient Romeby Scherer, Margaret RPublished by PHAIDON PRESS LTD (ENGLAND)Polybius on Roman imperialism :the histories of Polybiusby Polybius.Published by Regnery/Gateway,c1980Religions Of The Roman Empireby Ferguson, JohnPublished by CORNELL UNIV PRESS Rise Of Romeby King, GordonPublished by DOUBLEDAY DORAN & CO INC Roman Empire|Õ â † Ú€ù€€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚ÿby Charlesworth, M PPublished by OXFORD UNIV PRESS Roman Empireby Wells, ColinPublished by STANFORD UNIV PRESS Roman Historiansby Mellor, RonaldPublished by ROUTLEDGERoman Political Ideas & Practiceby Adcock, Frank Ezra,Published by UNIV OF MI PRESS Romans An Introduction To Their Historyby Christ, KarlPublished by UNIV OF CA PRESS ‚à  @‡ Ü€€€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚ÿRomeby Fowler, W WardePublished by OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS (NY) Rome & The Classical Westby Roberts, J.m.Published by OXFORD UNIV PRESS Rome & The Enemyby Mattern, Susan PPublished by UNIV OF CA PRESSRome and Her Empireby Cunliffe, Barry W. (Oxford)Published by McGRAW-Hill BOOK CO (NY)Rome Late Republic & Principateby Kaegi, Walter Emilâ  @ÌÆšâ Bm ¨€5€€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚ÿPublished by UNIV OF CHICAGO + PRESS Rome Republic & Empire Volume 1 The Republicby Household, H WPublished by J M DENT & SONS LTD (ENGLAND) Scipio Africanus & Rome's invasion of Africa :a historical commentary on Titus Livius, book XXIXby Smith, Philip JPublished by J.C. Gieben,1993Scipio Africanus :greater than Napoleonby Hart, B H LiddellPublished by Da Capo Press,1994 – @ Dw ¼€-€€ €‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚ÿSocial Conflicts In The Roman Republicby Brunt, P.a.Published by NORTONStudies in Roman propertyby Finley, MiPublished by Cambridge University Press,1976The ancient civilization of the Etruscans.by Bloch, RaymondPublished by New York,Cowles Book CoThe atlas of the classical world :ancient Greece and ancient Romeby Bardi, PieroPublished by Peter Bedrick Books,c1997B.Fq °€;€€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚ÿThe classical Roman reader :new encounters with Ancient Romeby Atchity, Kenneth JPublished by Oxford University Press,1998The historians of Greece and Romeby Usher, StephenPublished by University of Oklahoma Press :Bristol, U.K. :Bristol Classical Press,1985The histories.by PolybiusPublished by Cambridge,Harvard University Press,1954The imperial Roman armyby Le Bohec, Yann¦ D6Hb ’€M€€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚ÿPublished by Hippocrene Books ;London :B.T. Batsford, c1994The making of the Roman Army :from Republic to Empireby Keppie, LawrencePublished by University of Oklahoma Press,c1998The message and the kingdom :how Jesus and Paul ignited a revolution and transformed the ancient worldby Horsley, RichardPublished by Grossett/Putnam,c1997The Oxford history of the classical worldby Boardman, Johnš.FHJx ¾€5€€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚ÿPublished by Oxford University Press,1988The Oxford history of the Roman worldby Boardman, JohnPublished by Oxford University Press,1991The Penguin dictionary of ancient historyby Speake, GrahamPublished by Penguin,1995The Penguin historical atlas of ancient Romeby Scarre, ChristopherPublished by Penguin Books,1995The Roman art of war under the republicby Adcock F.e.¥6HeLx ¾€K€€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚ÿPublished by W. Heffer ;New York :Barnes & Noble,1960The Roman conquest of Italyby David, Jean MichelPublished by Malden, Mass. :Blackwell Publishers,1997The Roman war machineby Peddie, JohnPublished by Combined Books,1996The Romansby Welch, Kathryn/ LazePublished by Rizzoli,1998The war with Hannibal :books XXI-XXX of The history of Rome from its foundationby Livy/de SelincourtZÓHJ¿N‡ Ü€§€€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚ÿPublished by Penguin Books,1972, c1965The wisdom of ancient Romeby Otoole, JohnPublished by Abbeville Press,1996The world of Romeby Grant, MichaelPublished by New American Library, 1960These were the Romansby Tingay, GPublished by Dufour Editions,1989Topography & Monuments Of Ancient Romeby Platner, Samuel BPublished by ALLYN & BACONWarfare in the classical world :war and the ancient civilisations of Greece and Romeš7eLe€c ”€o€€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ €‚€ €‚€‚‚€‚ÿby Warry, JohnPublished by Salamander Books,c1998Wealth Of The Roman World Gold & Silverby Kent, J P CPublished by BRITISH MUSEUM PRESS Womens Life In Greece & Romeby Lefkowitz, Mary RPublished by J¿Ne€ÌÆOHNS HOPKINS UNIV PRESS ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)8¿N€1vú„' ÿÿÿÿ€ÛƒCredits:e€×€3 6€€€†"€A€‚€‚ÿz€ð‚Ÿ õ€€€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚ÿGrateful Appreciation to:Jesus ChristGeorgina Mata for using her God-given gift of artFred BunnMicrosoftAdobeMacromediaSonyLibrary of CongressPALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI, ROMEMUSEO DI VILLA GIULIA, ROMEMUSEO NAZIONALE, NAPLESBRITISH MUSEUMMUSEO ARCHAEOLOGICO, FLORENCEVATICAN, ROMETHE ART MUSEUM, PRINCETON UNIVERSITYë¥×€ÛƒF Z€K€€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚€‚‚€‚‚€‚ÿBIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, PARISARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM, PALESTRINA HOUSE OF VETTII, POMPEII©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Gð‚"„1² \ ÿÿÿÿ"„The Dawn of Rome Facts4ÛƒV„/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿê©"„@‡A P€S€€‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚â«ÇðR‰€‚ÿ-The Romans reckoned each year as the . . .th from the founding of the city.- In accordance with their custom of explaining the origin of the foreign peoples they encountered by connecting them with the wanderings of one of their own mythical heroes, such as Jason and the Argonauts, Heracles, or Odysseus, Greek writers from the 5th century BC onward invented at least 25 different myths to account for Rome's foundation. - The Romans welcomed all deities they could appropriate, the more the merrier, especially during times of war. The main deities were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva and a large Etruscan style temple was built on the Capitoline Hill in their honor.…GV„ʼn> J€€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âåòyy‰€‚€ ‚€‚ÿThe main deities were borrowed from the Etruscans, who borrowed from the Greeks, who borrowed from the Phoenicians.- During the first millennium BC while Rome was just a city-state on the Tiber River, the Celts (pronounced Kelts) inhabited many territories from central Europe to the Iberian Peninsula stretching over 1600 miles.- The celts and Romans were very different. The Romans were orderly and disciplined while the Celts were barbarious warriors and for thje most part, headhunters. These two cultures would clash and become fierce enemies over many centuries.!Û@‡æ‹F Z€·€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âF·[‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The Celts were loyal to their own tribe and never to any form of government or state.- By the seventh century BC the various villages around Latium joined in a religious festival called "Septimontium" which referred to the seven mountains or hills. - By 600 BC the villages had grown into a large flourishing city with a population of maybe 60,000 people. - Workers and farmers did their trade at the great "forum" which was an established center market.§dʼnC T€É€€ ‚âô‚ȉ€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ- The power neighbors known as the Etruscans were mainly farmers and mining of metal ores. They traded with Greece, Carthage and other Phoenecians- By the end of the republic, it was generally accepted that Rome had been founded in 753 BC and that the republic had begun in 509 BC.©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Hæ‹Õ1Š' „ ÿÿÿÿÕ#ÅRomulus and Remus Facts4 Ž/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿ6ÑÕKÀe ˜€£€€‚€ âé`ȵ‰€‚€ ‚â…²‰âvÿ¢}‰â… Ns‰â£<¯E‰âÅ ÷߉€‚€ ‚âûg¹d‰€‚ÿ- The followers of Romulus were shepherds, hunters, farmers, and merchants who lived in small huts scattered on the seven hills on which the city was built. -The 6 kings who had followed Romulus were: Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullus, and Tarquinius Superbus.- If you go to Rome today you can see parts of the Servian Wall wh ŽKÀich was once believed to have been built by Servius Tullius.Ê ŽcÂN j€•€€ ‚âïD·[‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The Latins were strongly influenced by the Greeks and the Etruscans- The Etruscans, a hard and warlike people, settled in Tuscany (first civilized people in Italy)- In Tuscany they built cities, developed law codes, established trade and were into art- In the 8th century BC they controlled north and central Italy through a chain of city-states- They also had colonies on Corsica and traded with the Carthaginians living in SardiniaS KÀ¶ÄF Z€€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚âC_@h‰€‚ÿ- In southern Italy and eastern Sicily were Greek colonists (centers of culture and commerce)- They wanted to civilize (rather than conquer) the Latin tribes and teach them skills and fine craftsmanship of the East, the Greek alphabet, and Greek religion.- There were also the Carthaginians (Sicily and Sardinia) who were commercial rivals of Rome that exercised control over many city-states.- The Romans fought the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars for commercial and political control of the western Med. mAcÂ#Å, (€‚€€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)D¶ÄgÅ1‚\ A ÿÿÿÿgÅ­The Etruscans Facts4#Å›Å/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿ½ngÅXÈO l€Ý€€‚€ âð¼pÀ‰€‚€ ‚â«ÇðR‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- No one knows for certain where the Etruscans had originally come from. They may have migrated from Asia Minor (now called Turkey) before settling in Etruria.- Historians have not deciphered much Etruscan writing (namely gods and goddesses) and cannot read first-hand accounts of Etruscan history.- The Etruscans did not speak an Indo-European language as did most migrant peoples from Asia Minor.- The mud, bricks, and wood from their buildings have all disappeared and though archaeologists have unearthed foundations of some Etruscan cities, there is very little revealed about Etruscan culture.Ò’›Å*Ë@ N€%€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Most of the knowledge of the Etruscans have been found in their burial chambers though not much is revealed.- The many Etruscan tomb paintings reveal that they enjoyed sports, religious ceremonies, music and feasts.- Decorative objects have been found in tombs such as furniture, clothing, pottery, tools, and jewelry all revealing that they were just as had been spoken about them, "wealthy Mediterranean traders." - Scholars have determned that their society consisted of wealthy overlords who made slaves of conquered peoples, aristocratic priests who sacrificed prisoners of war forced them to duel to the death to appease angry gods.ÌXÈFÍP n€™€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The Etruscans were the first civilized people to settle in Italy and they greatly influenced the Romans.- The Etruscans were flourishing from around 800 BC to 400 BC.- In the 6th cent. BC. they occupied and ruled Rome for 100 years. - Extensive iron ore deposits near them in north central Italy made them very rich from trade.- The Etruscans adopted the Greek alphabet.- They had skilled workers in bronze, iron and precious metals.O*Ë•ÏN j€€€ ‚âAÖ8m‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- At the height of their power they were ruling from the River Po to Naples.- It was the Etruscans that wore a robe, later known to the Romans as the "toga."- The Etruscans built Rome's first drainage system.- Etruscan soldiers carried an official symbol called the "fasces" which was an axe with its handle surrounded by sticks and tied with rope.- The Etruscan and Roman civilizations were put together from bits and pieces from Asia Minor, Greece, Phoenicia, Israel, Egypt, and Persia. Ÿ_FÍ@@ N€¿€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The Romans adopted almost all of their •Ï@#Åsuperior warfare techniques including weapons and armor designs from the Etruscans, using the same techniques to conquer them in the fourth century BC.- Etruscan women were considered equal to men- Roman elegance was adopted from the Etruscans, lavish banquets reclining on couches, watching dancers and other entertainers while being served courses of fine food and drink by slaves.- Senior officials of the Roman Republic derived their insignia from the Etruscans: curule chair, purple-bordered toga (toga praetexta), and bundle of rods (fasces). mA•Ï­, (€‚€€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)A@î1Ò„ ž ÿÿÿÿî The Latins Facts4­"/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿ¶`îØV z€Á€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âF·[‰âsé5‰â=‰âïD·[‰â®ÎRf‰€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The original Italian peoples are lost in the mists of the past and no one can be too certain about where they came from.- When the Romans first showed up in the area of Latium they were a mixed culture of people speaking different languages from among many cultures such as the Samnites, Umbrians, Latins, Gauls, Greeks, and Etruscans.- The early Romans were mainly influenced and ruled by the Etruscans who were highly advanced and the Romans learned so much from them that when the Etruscans had vanished as a people their practices and ways were still deeply rooted in the Romans. Æ"âD V€€€ ‚âåòyy‰€‚€ ‚âûg¹d‰€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The exact situation of Rome herself atop seven hills and with the Tiber River right there gave them a very powerful position in relation in all the land of Italy.- Parts of the ancient Servian Wall can still be seen today.- The early settlement had come together on special occasions such as "Septimontium" an ancient festival held every year on December 11th where each community offered sacrifices in honor of the hill they lived on.6òØ D V€å€€ ‚â[ü—±‰€‚€ ‚âé`ȵ‰€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ-Traditionally two of the hills of Rome (Quirinal and Capitol) were said to have been colonized by the Sabines, while the rest were occupied by the Latini though archaeology may not agree.- In 1635 AD Nicolas Poussin painted a marvelous oil painting showing the legendary rape, or abduction of the Sabine women by the followers of Romulus. It can be seen today at the metropolitan Museum in New York.- The Sabines were finally conquered in 290 BC and granted citizenship in 268 BC.g?â ( €~€€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)I È 1ÇA m‡ ÿÿÿÿÈ äIRome's First Kings Facts4 ü / .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿ2ÿÈ . 3 4€ÿ€€‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The regal period (753-509 BC) and the early republic (509-280 BC) are the most poorly documented periods of Roman history because historical accounts of Rome were not written until much later. - In earliest times, scholars believe that humans were ruled by chieftains or tribal leaders. These men became the rulers because they were already leaders in the more powerful clans and families. They usually kept their position as petty king or tribal chief because of their strength and skill in battle. ¿ü 7J b€€€ ‚â…²‰â£<¯E‰€‚€ ‚â«ÇðR‰€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Historians are fairly certain that Rome was ruled by kings during her early years. Kings Numa Pompilius and Ancus Marcius are legendary figures shrouded in mystery, while the sixth king, Servius Tullus, emerges as a historical personality. - Historians are fairly certain that three of Rome's seven kings were Etruscan.- None of these early kings were absolute rulers; they all required the support of the ruling aristocracy. g/. ªA8 >€_€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- When societies began to form the earliest civilizations, an all-powerful ruler or king governed them. - Early rulers like Hammurabi, Senn7ªA acherib, Xerxes, and Pharaoh Ramses I held immense power while their subjects had few rights except, of course, the right to obey their rulers. - The king would dress in a purple trimmed cloak and high - topped boots of red leather. He sat upon a throne of ivory known as a curule chair. These are often seen in reliefs and on the reverse of coins and were constructed using crossed elephant tusks for legs.„N7.E6 :€€€ ‚€‚€ ‚⊡֙‰€‚ÿ- The kings were accompanied by twelve lictors as he traveled about the city. The lictors each bore a fasces, a bundle of rods which symbolized the power over life and death held by the King of Rome. The axe symbolized the power to execute quicly and mercifully, while the rods symbolized the power to punish with beatings.- Though the king was commander in time of war, high priest, and judge, he did not have absolute power when it came to governing Rome. He needed the agreement of a governing body in order to make such important decisions as going to war. The Comitia Curiata was formed of representatives from each of the thirty curiae, or groups of family clans. If approved by the Comitia Curiata, the act still had to be approved by the Senate, originally one hundred of Rome's wealthy men who served as advisors to the king. FªAtG0 .€-€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ - It is an interesting fact of Roman history that there are no written records dating before 350 B.C. that have ever been discovered. - After that time, records began to be kept by the priests, the Consuls' names were recorded, and laws were written down. Later three men, Ennius, Naevius and the famous historian Q. Fabius Pictor began to write histories based on ancient legends and their own records of current events. Because of this, the seven kings of Rome possess a status somewhere between legendary and historical. È.EwI; D€‘€€ ‚âvÿ¢}‰€‚€ ‚€‚€‚‚ÿ- There probably were seven kings bearing these names, but the events ascribed to their reigns before Servius Tullius are probably legendary and allegorical in character. The warlike character of Tullus Hostilius stands in contrast to the religious emphasis on the events in King Numa's reign. - According to epic legend, Tarquin was overthrown because he had raped Lucretia, a virtuous Roman matron and the daughter of an important citizen. mAtGäI, (€‚€€‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)5wIJ1¦ž ­ˆ ÿÿÿÿJŠMMaps.äIGJ& €€€€‚ÿMaps«JXLf š‚W€€‚È6PI(`',`GLOS_Map_x_Italian_Peninsula_x6th_Centx_BCx') €‰€‚€€‚€‚ÈPI(`',`GLOS_Language_Map') €‰€‚€‚È!PI(`',`GLOS_Ancient_Italy_Map') €‰€‚€€‚€‚È#PI(`',`GLOS_Map_x_Mediterranean') €‰€‚€‚È'PI(`',`GLOS_The_Seven_Hills_of_Rome') €‰€‚€‚È!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') €‰€‚ÿItalian Peninsula(6th Century BC)Language MapPowers Of Ancient Italy(800 BC)The MediterraneanSeven Hills of RomePunic Wars2GJŠM¥ €€‚È&PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Roman_Expansion') €‰€‚€âC_@h‰€‚€‚È#PI(`',`GLOS_Modern_Map_of_Italy') €‰€‚€‚€‚€‚‚€‚ÿRoman Expansion(After 3rd Punic War)Modern Map of Italy©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)IXLÓM1) m‡  ÿÿÿÿÓM\‡Latium & Geography Facts4ŠMN/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿŒ9ÓMŸ€S t€s€€‚€ €‚€ €‚€ €‚€ €‚€ âé`ȵ‰âPF•h‰€‚ÿ- Archaeologists have determined that early villages began to develop around Rome from before 800 BC on the Palatine, Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills.- Palatine Hill became the center of Rebublican Rome and the site of important temples and palaces.- The seven hills of Rome were no higher than 60 yards but had steep slopes that rose above the flat marshland. - Several small streams flowed between theNŸ€ŠM seven hills.- At the western foot of the Palatine Hill was the Lupercal Spring, where the wolf is said to have nursed Romulus and Remus.õÀN”ƒ5 8€€€ €‚€ €‚€ €‚ÿ- The Italian Peninsula is a narrow boot shaped area that kind of divides the Mediterranean almost in half. It was an ideal location for trade among the three continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa.- All of the mountains around Italy were actually a good thing. The mountains drove them westward where they felt very protected and safe. The Greeks did not have the same advantage. This allowed the Romans to grow and develop new ideas and ways to live.- The large open land areas in the north and the big Mediterranean Sea all around made it easy for enemy armies to try to come in and make war with the Romans. This made the people of Rome very prepared for war at all times from the very start.%🀹…5 8€á€€ €‚€ €‚€ €‚ÿ- Italy has very rich and fertile soil and very mild weather. The soil was enriched by silt deposits of mountain streams and therefore vegetables, fruits, and grains thrived.- The silt filling the short shallow rivers sometimes became blocked and thus the mouths became like swamps and infested with mosquitos which also carried many diseases like recurring epidemics of malaria.- In the earliest times the peoples of Italy traded among themselves because of the mountainous topography.£Z”ƒ\‡I `€µ€€ €‚€ €‚€ €‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ- The Alps in the north blocked Italy from Europe, its only land connection. - Italy's coastline was long, rocky and marshy and lacked good harbors.- In order to increase trade Rome mastered the ways of the great sea but until then they remained attached to the land.- ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)M¹…©‡1­ˆ þƒ ÿÿÿÿ©‡ÇPolitical Institutions Facts4\‡݇/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿЩ‡î‰A P€¡€€‚€ ⊡֙‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The story of the Roman Senate goes way back to a time before there was an accurate written history for Rome. - The Senate was composed of leading citizens who were members of the original aristocratic families in the old Republic. - The original purpose of the Senate was to advise the King. This worked well during the first two centuries of Rome’s existence when Rome was little more than a city-state built on seven hills and ruled by a king. ƈ݇´Œ> J€€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âÅ ÷߉€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The Senate originally had one hundred members chosen from amongst the Patrician class but the early kings soon increased its size to three hundred members. - After the expulsion of the last Tarquin, Tarquinius Superbus, the Senate formed the main governing body of the Roman Republic. The two consuls, the chief ruling Magistrates of the Republic were chosen by the Senate, which served as the advisory body to the consuls. - Cornelius Sulla was the first to use an army to usurp the power of the Senate. He had many members of the Senate murdered who opposed his regime. He also increased the number of senators from 300 to 600. À|î‰tD V€ù€€ ‚â¶òd‰€‚€‚€ €‚€‚€ €‚ÿ- Many of these new senators appointed by Sulla were not Patricians, but instead members of the Equestrian Order who had supported Sulla’s takeover of the government.LATER HISTORY- The Roman Republic was a form of government that worked well with a city-state or even a group of powerful city-states in control of a region. With the annexation of Spain, Macedonia, Greece, the East, and North Africa in the Second Century BC, Rome had come to control a vast empire and the Republic with its two consuls, senate, and small group of magistrates was not an adequate government for an empire of the size Rome had acquired. +û´Œ«Â0 .€÷€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Many of the early senators were great orators and we have their words preserved for us tt«Â\‡oday by contemporary historians. Cato the Censor, Cicero, and others sometimes swayed the opinion of the entire population of Rome with their fine oratory and persuasive arguments. - The early years of the First Century BC ushered in a long period of civil war that began with the struggle between Sulla and Marius and reached a climax with Octavian’s defeat of Marcus Antonius at the Battle of Actium in 31 B. C. During that period, the Senate steadily lost power to the imperators, or generals of large Roman armies who controlled the government. In 27 B. C., the Senate voluntarily gave much of its power to Octavian, whom they had given the title of Augustus. œltGÅ0 .€Ù€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- While most of the early emperors tried to involve the Senate in the governing process and actively sought its counsel, most of the Senate’s real power was gone by the reign of Tiberius. Domitian was hostile to most of the Senate and Septimius Severus openly thumbed his nose at this once powerful Roman governing body. - During the later Roman Empire, the Senate had become more of an elite club for members of old aristocratic and equestrian families. It had no real governing power and its approval of acts of the emperor his laws was purely ceremonial. By this time, there were over one thousand senators. Ë’«ÂÇ9 @€%€€ ‚€‚€‚€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ-The Roman Senate survived even after the fall of the Roman Empire in the West when Rome had sunk to the status of a medium sized Italian city. Boethius, the Sixth Century advisor and close friend to Theodoric the Ostrogoth declared that the thing that made him happiest in his life was when his two sons were made Roman Senators. ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)JGÅ\Ç1Ò  v„ ÿÿÿÿ\Ç€EEarly Roman Society Facts4ÇÇ/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿx1\ÇÊG \€c€€‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚â dS€€‰€ €‚ÿ- Still today in Italian culture the father, grandfather, or great grandfather has the greatest authority and respect. The eldest father, or patriarch is similar to a mafia Godfather.- The father of the Roman family had the power over everyone and everything in the home. He could sell his wife or children into slavery and order their deaths at will. He could extend this power to his slaves and tenant farmers as well. -The Roman father also had the duties of pietas, or offering proper sacrifices to the household gods at the right times. e-ÇmÌ8 >€[€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The family gods were the lares, or gods of the fields and the penates, or gods of the household stores and food supply. - Education of children in the Roman world was done much differently from the way we educate our own children today. Though athletic training and sports were done in groups the essential learning skills were never done in groups like we do today. Much of the Roman education of children was adopted from the Greeks.- Education varied with social class despite their efforts to provide a uniform education to all citizens. ËÊvÏ> J€—€€ ‚€€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- There were three phases to a proper Roman education, primary instruction, reading of literature (called grammar by the Romans) and formal schooling in rhetoric.- Mythology was popular, and the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek scholars were important in the education of the young Roman.- A son of a rich merchant of the Equestrian class would receive an education that included personal training in business management. A noblewoman's education would prepare her for administration of a large estate and hundreds of slaves during her husband's absence. The sons of craftsmen would be apprentices, either in their father's shop or in the shop of another local craftsman of the same trade. ÎmÌŒ< F€€€ ‚âufà_€‰€ €‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The father in the traditional Roman home was a very stern figure, and belivÏŒÇeved his sons shouldn't be pampered but must build character. It was important that the young man develop gravitas, a serious and sturdy sense of purpose.- The little amount of comfort and physical love the child was allowed came from his mother or his nurse, who might be either male or female. This nurse often remained the boy's loyal servant even after he had grown up.3ïvÏ¿D V€ß€€ ‚€‚€ ‚â-b[f€‰€ €‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- A child might never see his mother and father except in the evenings for a formal dinner with the family. - As the boy grew, he was given a pedagogue or private tutor. The pedagogue was responsible for teaching the child basic reading ad writing skills and also prepared him for learning the important art of rhetoric, or public speaking.- Writing was done on a wax tablet with an ivory, bone, or metal stylus with an eraser (smoother) on the opposite end to correct mistakes.ãŒÜ: B€Ç€€ ‚â1˜‡s€‰€ ⊡֙‰€‚ÿ- The Grammaticus taught the sons of craftsmen and merchants correct sentence structure and speaking form. He had the right to swat the child across the back with a stick if he made grammar mistakes. In early times the Grammaticus was not always highly respected in Roman society and during the Republican period, the Senate banned all philosophers and grammaticii from Rome because they corrupted the minds of young Romans by teaching them to be "lazy and overly clever."Ñ¿Ý0 .€£€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Great universities also existed in the Mediterranean world. The best were at Athens and alexandria, and also Rome herself, although Rome had the best schools for the practice of law and government. In Athens, a student could get a classical education studying Greek dramas, poetry, logic, mathematics, or philosopy (science, mathematics, and other branches of knowledge).- Children always learned rigorous military discipline which included the arts of war, swordsmanship, hand to hand combat, and the way of life in an army camp. Basic training was very harsh and the boy learned quickly to endure cold and hunger in order to teach him to survive while in a war. This stern training was valued by all Romans. ¼tÜ™ H ^€é€€ ‚€‚€ ‚â«hõÝ€‰€ ╺Ðg€‰€ €‚ÿ- Some families provided an education to their girls and others considered an educated woman to be lacking in the feminine virtues. - The first and last name of a Roman were similar to the way we use them today. The first two names, the praenomen and nomen, were much like first and last names in our time. The nomen was the family name, passed from a father to all of his children. Just like today, certain family names carried more prestige than others. A boy was given a praenomen name at birth and was known by it to his family and close friends. Many boys were given exactly the same praenomen and nomen. ?ÝØ < F€€€ ‚€‚€ ‚â½ä€‰€ €‚ÿ- It is almost always noticed that most Roman names end with the letters "us", all the truly Roman praenomen and nomen ended in the letters "us," even the ones often given different endings in modern translations. - The cognomen was the third name and usually was given later in life as a title of distinction, for example Gaius Julius Caesar, or might refer to some physical characteristic, for example Rufus meant "red-haired". The cognomen might be handed down to a man's children, or it might not. „L™ h@8 >€™€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Most popular praenomina were always represented on official documents and inscriptions with a standard abbreviation.- Women carried, as their legal names, only the feminine form of their father's nomen. For example, all the daughters of all the Julius family were legally named Julia. A woman might also use a form of her father's cognomen and so be known as Julia Caesaria. - A slave freed by his master adopted the master's first two names and added his own slave name as cognomen. Ø h@ÇFor example, Marcus Tullius Tiro was the freed slave secretary of Marcus Tullius Cicero. ¬nØ C> J€Ý€€ ‚â œ4›‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Women were usually Noble Ladies, Warrior Queens, Soldiers' Wives, Farmer's Daughters, and Slaves.- Food for the common people consisted of wheat or barley, olive oil. a little fish, wine, home grown vegetables, and few owned a goat or cow or chickens. The grain was ground into flour and baked into loaves of bread, much like the round Italian loaves today. - Round loaves have been popular amongst almost all Mediterranean people since ancient times. They were baked in round ceramic bowls, like the plaster casts of loaves found at Pompeii which was destroyed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.Éh@E< F€“€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚ÿ- Barley was considered the food of slaves.- Roman soldiers carried their grain (high gluten wheat) and flour grindstones with them on the march. At night, after their 20 mile daily march they would have pasta and baked bread. They preferred this even over meat. When they did eat meat they considered it to be "barbarian food." - Plaster casts of Roman bread from Pompeii can be seen today exactly as they came from the oven 1913 years ago. g?C€E( €~€€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)KEËE1J þƒ – !ÿÿÿÿËEtThe Fifth Century BC Facts4€EÿE/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿ¡NËE HS t€€€‚€ âF·[‰âie‰âªá'¶‰€‚€ ‚â(j‰€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The plain of Latium began to be threatened by the fierce mountain tribes in the north (Sabines, Aequi, and Volsci), who experienced overpopulation and tried to acquire more land, they ruthlessly attacked Roman farms for years.- Rome's external affairs during the 5th century largely revolved around its military assistance to the Latin League to hold back these invaders.- The regal period (753-509 BC) and the early republic (509-280 BC) are the most poorly documented periods of Roman history because historical accounts of Rome were not written until much later. ÈŒÿEhK< F€€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âïD·[‰â«ÇðR‰€‚ÿ- The law code was inscribed upon 12 bronze tablets and publicly displayed in the Forum. Its provisions concerned legal procedure, debt foreclosure, paternal authority over children, property rights, inheritance, funerary regulations, and various major and minor offenses. Although many of its provisions became outmoded and were modified or replaced in later times, the Law of the Twelve Tables formed the basis of all subsequent Roman private law.- Toward the end of the 5th century, while Rome and the Latins were still defending themselves against the Volsci and the Aequi, the Romans began to expand at the expense of Etruscan states.׋ H?NL f€€€ ‚â®ÎRf‰âsé5‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Romans living on the frontier may have strongly favoured war against restless neighbours, such as Gauls and Samnites. - Rome's relentless expansion was more often responsible for provoking its neighbours to fight in self-defense. - Roman consuls, who led the legions into battle, often advocated war because victory gained them personal glory. - The Romans waged war for many reasons and they often used religious means to assist their war effort. The fetial priests were used for the solemn official declaration of war. According to fetial law, Rome could enjoy divine favour only if it waged just wars (wars of self-defense). ShKž€@ N€'€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Rome's first major war against an organized state was fought with Fidenae (437-426 BC), a town located just upstream from Rome. After it had been conquered, its land was annexed to Roman territory. - Rome next fought a long and difficult war against Veii, an important Etruscan city not far from Fidenae. - During the wars against Fidenae and Veii, Rome increased the numb?Nž€€Eer of military tribunes with consular power. - In 406 BC Rome instituted military pay, and in 403 BC it increased the size of its cavalry. Ö–?Nt@ N€-€€ ‚âð¼pÀ‰€‚€ ‚‚‚‚‚‚€‚‚€‚ÿ- The conquest of Veii opened southern Etruria to further Roman expansion.©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Lž€À1v„ mƒ "ÿÿÿÿÀËÄThe Fourth Century BC Facts4tô/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿ½ÀüƒK d€{€€‚€ â_“^à‰€‚€ ‚âb¹‡h‰âð¼pÀ‰â®ÎRf‰€‚ÿ- The Appian Way gave the Romans a great advantage when they needed reinforcements during their many battles.- Before Roman strength increased further, a marauding Gallic tribe swept down from the Po River valley, raided Etruria, and descended upon Rome. The Romans were defeated in the battle of the Allia River in 390 BC, and the Gauls captured and sacked the city; they departed only after they had received ransom in gold. Y ôU†L f€€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âsé5‰â¹<뉀‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- After this the Romans greatly feared and respected the strength of the Gauls. - Much of the fighting during this time consisted of three wars against the Samnites, Oscan-speaking tribes of the central and southern Apennines. - The Samnite tribes united, no doubt, to resist Rome's expansion.- Both the rugged terrain and the powerful Samnite soldiers proved to be difficult challenges, which forced Rome to adopt innovative military methods that later became important for conquering the Mediterranean..ÚüƒƒˆT v€µ€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚âïD·[‰€‚€ ‚â(j‰€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Once invited in, Rome usually absorbed the allied state after defeating iany of their enemies. - Campania was a major addition to Rome's strength and manpower.- The absorption of Campania provoked the Latins to take up arms against Rome to maintain their independence. - Since the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC, the city had become increasingly dominant within the Latin League. - In 381 BC Tusculum was absorbed by being given Roman citizenship. µU†„‹L f€k€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âF·[‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€€ €‚ÿ- In 358 BC Rome created two more tribes from territory captured along the Volscian coast. - The Latin War (340-338 BC) was quickly decided in Rome's favour. Virtually all of Latium was given Roman citizenship and became Roman territory, but the towns retained their local governments. - The large states of Praeneste and Tibur maintained somewhat of an independence by becoming Rome's military allies. - The Latin League was abolished; but the legal rights that the Latins had enjoyed among themselves were retained by Rome as a legal status, the Latin right (ius Latii), and used for centuries as an intermediate step between non-Roman status and full Roman citizenship.–^ƒˆŽ8 >€½€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Rome was now the master of central Italy and spent the next decade organizing and pushing forward its frontier through conquest and colonization. - The Romans soon confronted the Samnites of the middle Liris (modern Liri) River valley, sparking the Second, or Great, Samnite War (326-304 BC). During the first half of the war Rome suffered serious defeats, but the second half saw Rome's recovery, reorganization, and ultimate victory. - In 321 BC a Roman army was trapped in a narrow canyon near the Caudine Forks and compelled to surrender, and Rome was forced to sign a five-year treaty. Í„‹óÀ0 .€;€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- In 315 BC, after the resumption of hostilities, Rome suffered a crushing defeat at Lautulae. Ancient sources state that Rome initially borrowed hoplite tactics from the Etruscans (used during the 6th or 5th centuries BC) but later adopted the manipular system of the Samnites, probably as a result of Samnite success at this time. - The manipular formation resembled a checkerboard pattern, in which solid squares of soldiers wereŽóÀt separated by empty square spaces. It was far more flexible than the solidly massed hoplite formation, allowing the army to maneuver better on rugged terrain. The system was retained throughout the republic and into the empire. [+ŽNÃ0 .€W€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- During these same years Rome organized a simple navy, constructed its first military roads (construction of the Via Appia was begun in 312 BC and of the Via Valeria in 306), and increased the size of its annual military levy.- During the period 334-295 BC, Rome founded 13 colonies against the Samnites and created six new tribes in annexed territory. During the last years of the war, the Romans also extended their power into northern Etruria and Umbria. Several successful campaigns forced the cities in these areas to become Rome's allies. }BóÀËÄ; D€…€€ ‚âô‚ȉ€‚€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ- The Great Samnite War finally ended in Rome's victory. During the final phase of this war, Rome, on another front, concluded its third treaty with Carthage (306 BC), in which the Carthaginians acknowledged all of Italy as Rome's sphere of influence.©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)KNÃÅ1'– L#ÿÿÿÿÅ“The Third Century BC Facts4ËÄJÅ/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿð‹Å:Ée ˜€€€‚€ âsé5‰â=‰â®ÎRf‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚âQD?£‰â¢º©‰â=z؉â}b!‰€‚ÿ- The Third Samnite War (298-290 BC) was the last desperate attempt of the Samnites to remain independent. They persuaded the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls to join them. - Rome emerged victorious at the battle of Sentinum in 295 and spent the remainder of the war putting down any possible Samnite resistance. The Samnites were bound to Rome by a series of alliances.- Rome spent the 280s BC putting down unrest in northern Italy, but its attention was soon directed to the far south as well by a quarrel between the Greek city of Thurii and a Samnite tribe. Thurii called upon the assistance of Rome, whose naval operations in the area provoked a war with the Greek city of Tarentum. As in previous conflicts with Italian peoples, Tarentum summoned military aid from mainland Greece, calling upon King Pyrrhus of Epirus, one of the most brilliant generals of the ancient world.ó¯JÅ-ÌD V€_€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚⊡֙‰â ®3‰€‚ÿ- The Pyrrhic War, 280-275 BC, Pyrrhus brought 20 war elephants with his 25,000 highly trained soldiers, each elephant had a tower on its back with armed soldiers inside. - There have been plates and other objects discovered that reveal what these war elephants looked like. They were almost as large as modern elephants but much more fierce. They are extinct now.- After defeating the Romans at Heraclea and stirring up revolt among the Samnites, Pyrrhus offered peace terms that would have limited Roman power to central Italy. When the Senate became disheartened, Appius Claudius, an aged blind senator, roused their courage and persuaded them to continue fighting. g:ÉÊÎ6 :€Ï€€ ‚€€ €‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Pyrrhus again defeated the Romans in 279 at Asculum. His losses in the two battles numbered 7,500 (almost one-third of his entire force). When congratulated on his victory, Pyrrhus, according to Plutarch, "replied . . . that one other such would utterly undo him." This type of victory has been referred to as a Pyrrhic victory. - Pyrrhus then left Italy and aided the Greeks of Sicily against Carthage; he eventually returned to Italy and was defeated by the Romans in 275 BC at Beneventum. He then returned to Greece, while Rome put down resistance in Italy and took Tarentum itself by siege in 272.Ñ…-̧L f€ €€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚â\Fjq‰€€ €‚ÿ- By 270 BC Rome had more citizens and well-trained soldiers than any other Mediterranean power. - By 275 BC Rome ruled the entire Italian Peninsula. Rome was now the unquestioned master of Italy. Roman territory was a broad belÊΧËÄt across central Italy, from sea to sea. - Any conquered peoples were obligated to provide Rome with military forces in wartime.- In principle, each province was to be administered in accordance with its lex provinciae, a set of rules drawn up by the conquering commander and a senatorial embassy. The lex provinciae laid down the organization of taxation, which varied from province to province.4ÊÎÛ. *€ €€ ‚â“Æôo‰€‚ÿ- During the republic, tax collection was left to private companies of publicani, they were called this because they won by highest bid the contract to collect the revenues. It was the governor's responsibility to keep the publicani within the bounds of the lex provinciae so that they did not exploit the helpless provincials too mercilessly, but this was difficult. Governors expected to make a profit from their term of office, and some collaborated with the publicani to strip the provinces of their wealth.ä§÷8 >€É€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- According to the Roman census of 225 BC, Rome could call upon 700,000 infantry and 70,000 cavalry from its own citizens and allies. - The conquest of Italy provided Rome with considerable manpower, and forced it to develop military, political, and legal institutions and practices for conquering and absorbing foreign peoples. - The Pyrrhic War demonstrated that Rome's civilian army could wage a successful war against highly skilled armies of the Mediterranean world.œbÛ“: D€Ä€€ ‚âC_@h‰€‚€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ(Also see Punic Wars Facts)©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)E÷Ø1‚mƒ Ð$ÿÿÿÿØ The Punic Wars Facts4“ / .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿÏØ A P€Ÿ€€‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚âô‚ȉ€‚ÿ- Rome placed loyal, Latin speaking citizens and colonies in strategic areas throughout Italy to promote a Roman way of living and thinking.- Rome's rapid expansion brought it almost immediately into conflict with non-Italian powers. - In the south, the main opponent was Carthage. In violation of the treaty of 306, which had placed Sicily under Carthaginian rule, Rome crossed the straits of Messana (between Italy and Sicily) embarking on war. ù¯  J b€_€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âõš[í‰â €‰€‚€ ‚‚€‚‚€‚ÿ- Rome's wars with Carthage are known as the "Punic Wars"; the Romans called the Carthaginians Poeni [Phoenicians], from which derived the adjective "Punic."- Polybius, who wrote his history in order to explain to other Greeks the reasons for Roman success, believed that after their victory over Hannibal the Romans conceived the aim of dominating all ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)J _ 1n Lh‚%ÿÿÿÿ_ ÌCThe First Punic War Facts4 “ / .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿZ _ í Q p€€€‚€ âõš[퉀‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The historian Polybius said that this war was the most destructive war in terms of casualties in the history of wars up to this time, including the wars of Alexander the Great. - 120 soldiers were awaiting the drawbridge to board the enemy ship and fight.- Carthaginian warships had underwater battering rams.- The navigators used the sun, moon and stars to calculate their position in the sea. - There were huge lighthouses at the biggest harbors including the massive Lighthouse of Alexandria.Г ÿ@6 :€¡€€ ‚âô‚ȉ€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- The main cause of the first outbreak of the War between Carthage and Rome was a crisis in the city of Messana (Messina) who had applied for help to both Rome and Carthage. The Carthaginians arrived first and brought somewhat of a solution. The arriving Roman commander, forced his way into the city and seized the Carthaginian admiral during a discussion and forced him to withdraw. This aggression involved Rome in war with Carthage and Syracuse.- The Romans overcamí ÿ@ e the Carthaginians at Messana. In 262 they besieged and captured the Carthaginian base at Agrigentum on the south coast of the island. The first years of the war left little doubt that Roman had intentions beyond the protection of Messana.^&í ]C8 >€M€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- In 260 the Romans built their first large fleet of standard battleships. At Mylae (Milazzo), off the north Sicilian coast, their admiral Gaius Duilius defeated a Carthaginian squadron of more maneuverable ships by grappling and boarding. - A large Roman fleet sailed out in 256and defeated the entire Carthaginian fleet off Cape Ecnomus (near modern Licata), and established a fortified camp on African soil at Clypea (Kélibia in Tunisia). - Rome only lost one naval battle in the entire war but lost a serious amout of ships to stormsoBÿ@ÌC- *€„€€ ‚‚€‚‚€‚ÿ©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)K]CD1.ÐI‡&ÿÿÿÿDúIThe Second Punic War Facts4ÌCKD/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿ ÊDVFA P€•€€‚€ â €‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Hannibal lived from 247-182 BC.- Since Rome now ruled the Sea they could choose the field of battle. They decided to send one army to Spain and another to Sicily and Africa. - Hannibal acted strategically and began a series of operations that dictated the course of the war for the greater part of its duration. He developed a plan by cutting off their source of strength in which he invaded Italy, thus causing a disruption of the league. NKD¤HN j€€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚â®ÎRf‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Hannibal's chances of ever reaching Italy seemed small, for the sea was guarded by the Roman fleets and the land route was long and treacherous but he was very determined.- Hannibal lost over 10,000 men and many elephants crossing the Alps.- Hannibal picked up an army of Gauls along his way through the Alps.- While Hannibal was attacking on the north, the Macedonians were attacking on the east.- The Latin allies held firm and every freeman and slave was drafted for military service.VVFúIE X€#€€ ‚€‚€ ‚âõš[í‰âC_@h‰€‚€‚‚€‚ÿ- When Scipio moved into Spain he crushed Hannibal's rear support.- For Polybius, the Second Punic War illustrated the superiority of the strong Roman constitution over Hannibal's individual genius.©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)J¤HDJ1Y h‚†'ÿÿÿÿDJ.ƒThe Third Punic War Facts4úIxJ/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿÊ}DJBMM h€û€€‚€ âC_@h‰âô‚ȉ€‚€ ‚â§æ¡m‰€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- After the Second Punic War, Carthage had recovered to the point that in 191 it offered to repay the remainder of the 50-year tribute of 200 talents per year in one lump sum.- Carthage's neighbour, the Numidian king Masinissa, had been granted as a reward for his support of Rome at the Battle of Zama his paternal kingdom and the western Numidian kingdom ruled by Syphax. - After a series of losses and numerous Numidian attacks, the Carthaginians in 151 decided to fight back, violating the treaty of 201 When a Roman delegation observed thisRome was provided with the casus belli for a declaration of war in 149.cxJ¥OL f€/€€ ‚⊡֙‰€‚€ ‚âòɉ€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ-Polybius claimed that the Senate had decided on this war "long before." - It was Cato the Elder who cried "Carthago Delenda est" (Carthage must be destroyed) which resulted in the famous slogan. Carthage desperately tried to make amends, executing their own generals who had fought against the Numidians, surrendering to Rome, handing over hostages, armour, and artillery. - Rome finally agreed that: Carthage must be abandoned and the population moved to a new site inland. Carthage had no choice but to fight.¼„BMm‚8 >€ €€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Rome sent huge land and naval f¥Om‚úIorces under both consuls of 149, Lucius Marcius Censorinus and Manius Manilius. - Rome knew they would win but the heavy fortifications of Carthage delayed the Roman victory. The young Scipio Aemilianus was elected consul for 147, and by popular vote he was assigned the task of bringing the war to an end. He blockaded the city by land and sea, inflicting terrible suffering. - Finally, in 146, the Roman army took Carthage, enslaved its remaining 50,000 inhabitants, burned the buildings to the ground, and ritually sowed the site with salt to guarantee that nothing would ever grow there again. Á†¥O.ƒ; D€ €€ ‚â\Fjq‰€‚€ ‚€‚‚€‚ÿ- Carthaginian territory was annexed as the province of Africa.©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Hm‚vƒ1?I‡¾(ÿÿÿÿvƒmˆRoman Citizenship Facts4.ƒªƒ/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿ¡`vƒK†A P€Á€€‚€ €‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚âF·[‰€‚ÿ- Rome placed loyal, Latin speaking citizens and colonies in strategic areas throughout Italy to promote a Roman way of living and thinking.- Rome offered different classes of citizenship to the people of the allied or conquered towns. One class of citizenship offered full voting privileges and an opportunity for the man or his descendents to gain a magistracy or membership in the Roman senate.- The Latin War (340-338 BC) was quickly decided in Rome's favour. Virtually all of Latium was given Roman citizenship and became Roman territory, but the towns retained their local governments. "ÒªƒmˆP n€¥€€ ‚€‚€ ‚â(j‰âïD·[‰€€ €‚€‚‚€‚‚€‚ÿ- The large states of Praeneste and Tibur maintained somewhat of an independence by becoming Rome's military allies. - The Latin League was abolished; but the legal rights that the Latins had enjoyed among themselves were retained by Rome as a legal status, the Latin right (ius Latii), and used for centuries as an intermediate step between non-Roman status and full Roman citizenship.©1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)PK†½ˆ1Q†vˆ)ÿÿÿÿ½ˆ=ÊThe Republican Government Facts4mˆñˆ/ .€ €€†"€B€‚ÿÖ½ˆ‹9 @€­€€‚€ €‚€ ‚â…²‰€‚ÿ- Senior officials of the Roman Republic derived their insignia from the Etruscans: curule chair, purple-bordered toga (toga praetexta), and bundle of rods (fasces). - Early Rome was a city-state and had kings (Romulus, Servius Tullius, Numa Pompilius, etc.) The Romans found out very early that they did not favor kings and their abuses of power, even if the king was a good ruler. In 509 B.C. Tarquin the Proud was overthrown and the Republic was founded. ]'ñˆ]Ž6 :€O€€ ‚€‚€ ‚⊡֙‰€‚ÿ- By the third century the consuls (two consuls were elected to serve for one year) had similar authority as the early kings except for the fact that they could only serve in office for one year. This would put a limit on the possibility of a dictatorship. In fact if one consul thought the other was getting too powerful he could veto the other consul's actions. We get our word "veto" from the Latin word which means "I forbid." - The consuls were in charge of government and also of the army. The 300 citizen Senate advised them at all times. They also maintained the treasury as well as foreign policy and they served for life. In the history of the Roman Republic the Senate was always the most powerful group. In order to be elected to the Senate, a person had to be of the Patrician class.`"‹ÉÀ> J€E€€ ‚âš<¹‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Only the Assembly could approve or disapprove of one of their laws and only the assembly elected Candidates for the office of consul. - There was always a basic concept of checks and balances.- The modern US constitution is based on these basic concepts of checks and balances within the ancient government of the Roman Republic. Whether it be]ŽÉÀmˆ the President, the Congress, or the courts, none can dominate the government. Each branch has a way to check the actions of the other and the actions of each branch balance the others. 1ù]ŽúÂ8 >€ó€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- Though many of the Greek city-states, such as Sparta, were ruled by a king, there were some forms of democracy emerging. The most well known of these early democracies was Athens. The Golden Age of Athenian democracy began about 500 BC and lasted for a just over one hundred years. - These democracies were not very much like the governments we call democracies today because only the citizens could vote and hold office.- In most classical governments, women had few rights or none at all.ØÉÀÅD V€±€€ ‚â}ë‰â¶òd‰€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚ÿ- It wasn't long before the Plebeians argued for more rights. They won the right to elect tribunes, who could veto any senatorial law. They only won the right to have the protection of the tribunes because they protested by refusing to go to war. Power constantly shifted between the Plebians and the Patricians.LATER HISTORY- During the time of the Civil Wars and the Imperators, the real power was held by the generals in command of the largest armies. ]úÂsÈ> J€?€€ ‚€‚€ ‚€‚€ ‚â¼*×n‰€‚ÿ- Octavian, later given the title "Augustus" by the Senate, was also given the titles "Princeps" and "Pontifex Maximus", and was given tremendous power to reform the Republic. He is considered to be the first Emperor but he never proclaimed himself as absolute ruler. - The Romans maintained the delusion of having a Republic until quite late in the Empire. - The Emperor was considered as simply First Citizen or "Princeps" until the time of Diocletian (A. D. 284-305.) At this time, the Emperor became a remote, absolute de